An approach to human ecodynamics and resilience in the economic trajectories of agropastoral societies in northern La Rioja (Argentina) from the 3rd to 17th centuries CE

Abstract

Over the past decades, numerous studies have examined human ecodynamics, focusing on the trajectories of socio-ecological systems (SES) and the co-evolution of natural and social subsystems. Resilience Theory (RT) provides a conceptual framework for analyzing these dynamics, particularly through the metaphor of adaptive cycles. In this study, we investigate the consumption patterns of agropastoral societies that inhabited northern La Rioja from the 3rd to 17th centuries CE, exploring long-term human adaptation in the drylands of northwestern Argentina. Zooarchaeological analysis revealed shifts in consumption patterns over time. From the 3rd to 7th centuries CE, subsistence strategies were primarily centered on the exploitation of artiodactyls. However, by the 11th century CE, a process of residential site abandonment and dietary diversification emerged. The results indicate significant changes in faunal exploitation, particularly a decline in Artiodactyla consumption, driven mainly by demographic growth and socio-economic adjustments. These transformations led to greater mobility and a shift toward opportunistic resource exploitation. Our findings highlight the resilience and adaptability of human populations in response to socio-economic and demographic challenges. Local societies demonstrated flexibility in adapting to environmental unpredictability and demographic shifts by adjusting their strategies to new conditions.

Keywords

agropastoralism camelids drylands human ecodynamics La Rioja resilience

Introduction

The study of human ecodynamics (HE) focuses on the dynamics of socio-ecological systems (SES) and their irreducible interactions (Fitzhugh et al., 2019; McGlade, 1995). This approach emphasizes long-term processes of stability, resilience, and change in SES relationships. From this perspective, space is socially constructed and time-dependent, causality is non-linear, destabilizing processes function as positive feedback, and the explanations are built upon interpretative and integrative analyses. Predictions are not feasible due to the inherent chaos of non-linear systems (McGlade, 1995).

Resilience Theory (RT) provides a valuable conceptual framework for evaluating how communities respond to external shocks, such as environmental changes. Resilience is commonly defined as the capacity of a system to adapt to changes while maintaining its core functions (Holling, 1973). Some scholars prefer the term “stability landscape” to describe a system in dynamic equilibrium that, when faced with disturbances, develops counteracting forces to restore equilibrium (Scheffer, 2009; Walker et al., 2004). However, destabilizing forces—whether internal or external—can push the system into an alternative basin, leading to a reorganization of its components (Davies et al., 2021; Newton et al., 2024).

An important contribution to resilience analysis is the concept of adaptive cycles, developed by Gunderson and Holling (2002). This model proposes that SES transitions through four main phases. Exploitation (r) corresponds to the phase of rapid colonization of recently disturbed areas; conservation (K) represents the phase of slow accumulation and storage of energy and materials; release (Ω) occurs when the accumulated biomass becomes increasingly fragile and is suddenly released by external agents; and reorganization (α) phase involves the reconfiguration of the system, which may either resemble its predecessor or develop new functional characteristics (Gunderson and Holling, 2002; Redman, 2005). While this model is a useful framework for guiding research, it is important to build models based on appropriate data and to interpret findings in the context of archeological records (Fitzhugh et al., 2019; Gunderson and Holling, 2002; Heitz et al., 2021; Redman, 2005).

In a previous work (Cahiza et al., 2021), we examined the temporal dynamics of occupation in northern La Rioja (Argentina), identifying phases of growth and decline in occupation intensity, as well as an east-west mobility process, particularly after the late 10th century. In this paper, we analyze the consumption patterns of these societies between the 3rd and 17th centuries and the changes observed throughout the temporal sequence. Our hypothesis is that demographic and environmental changes led to adjustments in subsistence patterns related to faunal consumption. The objective is to identify the adaptive and resilience mechanisms related to subsistence practices of small-scale societies in the drylands of northern La Rioja. Zooarchaeology provides a critical framework for understanding the interaction between humans and animals in the past. Here, we present the results of various zooarchaeological analyses that shed light on the adaptive processes of human populations in northern La Rioja.

Eastern sector of the Sierra de Velasco (La Rioja, Argentina)

The research area is located in the northeastern foothills of the Sierra de Velasco, in the northern region of La Rioja province (Figure 1), northwestern Argentina. La Rioja lies within the arid diagonal of South America. The area is characterized as a continental desert, with an average annual precipitation of approximately 200 mm and significant altitudinal gradient variation. The mean temperature is 16.6°C, with extremes ranging from 40°C to −9°C.

Figure 1.

Localization of the research area and archeological sites based on relief characteristics (La Rioja, Argentina).

Relief is the main factor determining climatic conditions in the area. The altitude ranges from 800 to 4000 masl. Between 800 and 1200 masl, the valley floor is characterized by the environment of the Monte (M) phytogeographic province. The vegetation forms a mosaic of two types: a zonal type, represented by shrub steppes or open Larrea cuneifolia shrublands, and an azonal or edaphic type, consisting of open, and aligned Neltuma chilensis (algarrobo) forests, which thrive along the courses of intermittent rivers.

Between 1200 and 1800 masl, the piedmont (MP) develops, encompassing alluvial fans and gently sloping foothills. The vegetation is typical of the Monte, where Larrea scrublands are gradually replaced by open shrublands dominated by Flourensia fiebrigii, alongside Trichocereus terschekii. The aligned forests feature trees such as Celtis ehrenbergiana and Neltuma chilensis.

Above 1800 masl, the Chaco Serrano (CS) exhibits vegetation characteristic of the Chaco phytogeographic province. The steep mountain slopes foster a diversity of environments, including shrublands, forests, and grasslands. The shrubland is dense and hosts various shrub species from the Asteraceae and Verbenaceae families. Rocky slopes are characterized by cushion-forming bromeliads (Deuterocohnia brevifolia), cacti, and ferns. Aligned forests thrive in ravines with permanent rivers, where Parasenegalia visco and Lithraea molleoides are the dominant species.

Finally, on plains above 2100 masl, vegetation corresponds to the Prepuna (PP) and High Andean phytogeographic provinces (Biurrun et al., 2012), with high-altitude grasslands dominated by Jarava ichu.

The faunal assemblage comprises species characteristic of the Monte, Arid Chaco, and Prepuna phytogeographic provinces. South American camelids were the most relevant resource in the subsistence of human communities in northwestern Argentina (NWA) throughout the Holocene (Belotti López de Medina, 2024; López, 2009; Olivera and Grant, 2008; Yacobaccio, 2003). Two wild species (Vicugna [vicuña] and Lama guanicoe[guanaco]) and two domestic species (Vicugna pacos [alpaca] and Lama glama [llama]) inhabited the region. However, alpaca husbandry in NWA may have been ecologically challenging, as noted by several researchers (Franklin, 1983; Mengoni Goñalons and Yacobaccio, 2006; Wheeler, 1995). Currently, just Lama guanicoe was registered in Sierra de Velasco, and there are some indirect archeological evidences of the presence of Lama glama in the past (Garate, 2021; Garate et al., 2024, Garate et al, 2025). There is limited evidence of taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis) in the archeological record, although its presence has been documented to this day in the upper sectors of the Sierra de Velasco (Raviña and Callegari, 1992). In zooarchaeological assemblages, other taxa, like rodents (Lagidium viscacia, Galea sp., Ctenomys sp.), birds (Eudromia elegans and Rhea sp.), and armadillos (Chaetophractus villosus) are frequently present (Garate, 2021; Garate et al., 2024, Garate et al, 2025).

Paleoenvironment, demographic trends, and subsistence strategies in northwestern Argentina

Throughout the Late-Holocene, the environment experienced a series of oscillations between arid and humid phases. On global scale, researchers have recognized two complex phenomena (Bradley, 2015; Bradley et al., 2003; Compagnucci, 2000; Diaz et al., 2011; Ge et al., 2010; Hughes and Diaz, 1994; Kock et al., 2020; Lüning et al., 2019; Morales et al., 2015, 2020; Stine, 1994, 1998). The Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) was a climatic perturbation that occurred primarily between 1000 and 1300 CE. Studies suggest that during this period, the climate was hotter and drier than today (Flores-Aqueveque et al., 2024; Kock et al., 2020; Lüning et al., 2019). Some scholars (Cook et al., 2022) have identified episodes of megadroughts in various regions of South America, including Patagonia, central Chile, and central-western Argentina. They recognized some of these events occurring around 1050–1200 CE (coinciding with the estimated period of the MCA), 1250–1400 CE, 1615–1637 CE, 1684–1696 CE, and from 2008 to the present (Cook et al., 2022). The other climatic perturbation is the Little Ice Age (LIA), which spanned from the 15th to the 19th century, imposing colder and wetter conditions, although interspersed with periods of increased aridity (Martel-Cea et al., 2016; Mayta and Maldonado, 2022; Morales et al., 2015; Ortiz et al., 2012; Sampietro Vattuone et al., 2018).

In a previous study (Cahiza et al., 2021), we presented a model of human population trends between the 3rd and 17th centuries. Based on the analysis of radiocarbon dates, we identified three phases. The first temporal component, dated between the 3rd and 7th centuries, corresponds to the processes of colonization, and settlement (Sabatini, 2019; Sabatini and Cahiza, 2021). During this period, people primarily constructed their houses and agricultural infrastructure along the foothills of the Sierra de Velasco. The second temporal component was identified around the 7th century, marked by significant demographic growth in the region. This phase is evidenced by larger and more complex residential sites (Cahiza et al., 2018a, 2018b, 2021; Garate, 2021; Garate et al., 2024). The third temporal component spans from the 11th to the 17th century. A notable shift in the growth trend occurred around 1000 CE, when the study area experienced the abandonment of residential sites. These demographic changes occurred within the context of the megadrought and the events of the MCA (Cahiza et al., 2021; Cook et al., 2022; Kock et al., 2020). Human presence during this period is documented exclusively in rock shelters, suggesting a shift toward increased mobility. From 1500 CE onward, the emergence of sites with defensive features (pukaras) indicates a heightened level of conflict in the region.

In this context, we believe that demographic and environmental changes likely caused shifts in the subsistence patterns of local groups (Bettinger, 2009; Carlson and Edenhamn, 2000; Harrison and Taylor, 1997; Muscio, 2004; Redman, 1999; Winterhalder and Goland, 1993, 1997). In northwestern Argentina (NWA), the economic base of most societies was linked to the development of agricultural and pastoral systems (Acuto, 2007; Berberián and Nielsen, 1988; González, 1955; Izeta, 2007; Laguens, 2006; Núñez Regueiro, 1974; Olivera, 2001; Tarragó, 2000; among others). However, hunting wild species—such as camelids, cervids, rodents, armadillos, and birds—remained a significant activity (Belotti López de Medina, 2010; Dantas, 2011; Figueroa, 2010; Izeta, 2007; Laguens et al., 2013; Mercolli, 2016; Miyano, 2018; Olivera and Grant, 2008; Yacobaccio et al., 1997-1998.

Methodology

Here, we analyzed the archaeofaunal assemblages from 18 sites that are representative of the different temporal, demographic, and ecological patches (Table 1). For this study, residential units were grouped into two categories: domestic scale (simple enclosures with one or two rooms) and community scale (with the presence of public spaces and larger built areas that foster greater social interaction; Cahiza et al., 2018a; Drennan and Peterson, 2005). In addition to the residential sites, rock shelters were included as a third category. A detailed description of each archeological context is provided in Garate (2025).

Table 1.

Summary of Archaeological Sites by Temporal Component and Environmental Context.

Temporal components	Site	Classification	Chronology(cal. CE)	Environment
First temporal component (200–600 CE)	Uchuquita 3 (U3)	Domestic scale	251–305	MP
	Uchuquita 2 (U2)	Domestic scale	431–479	MP
	Uchuquita 1 (U1)	Domestic scale	586–606	MP
	Terraza 5 (T5)	Domestic scale	388–401	MP
Second temporal component (600–1000 CE)	La Punta 1 (LP1)	Domestic scale	601–619 604–616	M
	Faldeos de Anillaco (FDA)	Community scale	774–779 692–699 655–776 638–774 773–1045 774–821 677–897 690–703	MP
	El Chañarcito (EC)	Community scale	683–746 663–774	MP
	Loma de la Puerta (LDP)	Community scale	670–774	MP
	Los Cardones de Aminga (LCA)	Community scale	680–690 890–903	MP
	Loma de Anjullón (LDA)	Community scale	775–785 777–779	MP
	El Diablito-Residencial (ED-R)	Domestic scale	775–782	CS
	Alero La Aguadita (ALA)	Rock shelter	894–938	PP
Third temporal component (1000–1600 CE)	El Diablito-Piedra Pintada (ED-PP)	Rock shelter	1021–1045	CS
	Alero de Anjullón (ADA)	Rock shelter	1051–1063	MP
	Alero de la Toma (ALT)	Rock shelter	1317–1357	MP
	Alero de Agua Blanca-Sector I (AAB-SI)	Rock shelter	-	M
	Alero de Agua Blanca-Sector II (AAB-SII)	Rock shelter	1230–1247 1648–1670	M
	Alero de Agua Blanca-Sector IV (AAB-SIV)	Rock shelter	-	M

References: M: Monte-Valley floor (800–1200 masl); MP: Monte-Piedmont (1200–1800 masl); CS: Chaco Serrano (1800–2100 masl); PP: Prepuna (>2100 masl).

The zooarchaeological analyses employed a traditional methodology (Lyman, 1994, 2008; Mengoni, 2010), which involved the identification of anatomical and taxonomic characteristics of bone material. The identification of the recovered remains was carried out using comparative reference collections available at Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Humanas, Sociales y Ambientales (INCIHUSA, CONICET-Mendoza) and osteological atlases (Altamirano, 1983; France, 2009; Pacheco Torres et al., 1979; Sierpe González, 2015; among others). For quantification, we employed the Number of Specimens (NSP) to account for the total number of remains; the Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) for those bones that could be assigned to any taxonomic category (Lyman, 1994, 2008). To evaluate taxonomic richness, we used Ntaxa, the Simpson’s diversity index (1/D), the evenness index (V’), and the Artiodactyla index (IA; Broughton, 1994; Grayson, 1991; Lyman, 2008; Mengoni, 2010). For the calculation of diversity indices, we used the most specific taxonomic categories available for each (Grayson, 1984; Lyman, 2008; Reitz and Wing, 2008). Correlations between these indices and altitude (masl) were assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient.

We assumed that human populations made rational and adaptive decisions to optimize available resources and maximize their energy returns (Winterhalder, 1981). The exploitation of animals and ecological patches likely followed rational strategies linked to the optimal use of the environment (Boone, 1992; Kaplan and Hill, 1992; Kelly, 1995; Winterhalder and Smith, 1981; among others). In practice, this implies that people incorporated various available resources into their diets based on the energy return rate of those resources (Smith et al., 1983; Winterhalder and Goland, 1997). It has been suggested that there is a positive correlation between animal size and their return rates (Broughton et al., 2011). In northern of Sierra de Velasco, the primary animals in this category are camelids (Lama guanicoe and Lama glama). Consequently, a predominance of Artiodactyla is expected throughout the analyzed temporal sequence. Here, we estimated the age at death of camelid remains to determine mortality patterns (Kaufmann, 2009)

Results

The details of archaeofaunal analysis are presented in Supplemental Material due to the size of the samples considered. We identified that Rodentia (42.6%, NISP = 2393), Artiodactyla (36%, NISP = 2026), Camelidae (13.2%, NISP = 744), Birds (4.2%, NISP = 234) and Dasypodidae (3%, NISP = 170) were the most frequent taxonomic categories in the total assemblage (Figure 2). Rodentia includes only small mammals (micromammals) that could not be identified to genus or species level. Artiodactyla and Camelidae were considered separately due to the presence of Hippocamelus antisensis in the area, but we have limited evidence of their consumption in archeological sites. Therefore, we believe that most of the Artiodactyla remains likely correspond to the Camelidae family.

Figure 2.

Percentage of identified specimens (NISP%) in the total assemblage.

In the first temporal component, butchery marks (n = 39) were identified exclusively on Artiodactyla (64.1%, n = 25) and Camelidae (35.9%, n = 14) remains. The second temporal component (n = 225) showed a similar pattern, with most butchery marks recorded on Artiodactyla (54.2%, n = 122) and Camelidae (37.3%, n = 84), followed by Birds (3.6%, n = 8) and Rodentia (2.7%, n = 6). In the third temporal component, butchery marks (n = 17) were observed on Artiodactyla (23.5%, n = 4), Camelidae (23.5%, n = 4), Birds (17.6%, n = 3), Dasypodidae (11.8%, n = 2), Rodentia (5.9%, n = 1), Galea musteloides (5.9%, n = 1), and Lagidium sp. (5.9%, n = 1; Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Top: Percentage of butchery marks recorded for each temporal component; Bottom: Percentage of burned bones recorded for each temporal component.

The analysis of burned bones revealed similar trends (Figure 3). In the first temporal component, burned specimens (n = 135) were recorded primarily on Artiodactyla (74.1%, n = 100), followed by Camelidae (17%, n = 23), Dasypodidae (5.9%, n = 8), Rodentia (2.2%, n = 3), and Birds (0.7%, n = 1). During the second temporal component, burned bones (n = 1228) were most frequently associated with Artiodactyla (62.4%, n = 766) and Camelidae (21.1%, n = 259), which together accounted for 83.5% of the total. The remaining specimens corresponded to Rodentia (14.1%, n = 173), Birds (1.5%, n = 18), Dasypodidae (0.7%, n = 8), Lycalopex sp. (0.1%, n = 1), Eudromia elegans (0.1%, n = 1), Columba livia (0.1%, n = 1), and Leporide (0.1%, n = 1). The third temporal component (n = 166) was characterized by a marked predominance of burned Rodentia remains (62.7%, n = 104), followed by Dasypodidae (14.5%, n = 24), Artiodactyla (12%, n = 20), Birds (5.4%, n = 9), Camelidae (4.2%, n = 7), Lagidium sp. (0.6%, n = 1), and Bos taurus (0.6%, n = 1).

Table 2 summarizes the results of richness and taxonomic indexes for each defined temporal component. The Artiodactyla index shows a predominance of these animals in the assemblages of first and second temporal component but it declines over time. The evenness index presents similar values across the three temporal components. The Simpson index shows an increasing trend over time, indicating greater diversity.

Table 2.

Averages ( $\bar{x}$ ) and standard deviations (s) of taxonomic richness and abundance in the different temporal components.

	Artiodactyla index (IA)		Evenness index (V’)		Simpson diversity index (1/D)
Temporal components	$\bar{x}$	SD	$\bar{x}$	SD	$\bar{x}$	SD
First temporal component	0.75	0.09	0.59	0.23	1.65	0.30
Second temporal component	0.65	0.19	0.57	0.15	1.84	0.40
Third temporal component	0.24	0.19	0.61	0.22	1.93	0.43

The Artiodactyla index shows higher mean values at domestic and community-scale sites (Figure 4). In rock shelter sites this index presents lower values. These results imply that Artiodactyla dominated the archaeofaunal assemblages of residential sites but not in rock shelters.

Figure 4.

Box plot of Artiodactyla index in domestic scale sites, community scale sites and rock shelters. Boxes show the interquartile range (25th–75th percentiles), with medians as horizontal lines and means as “×.” Whiskers indicate values within 1.5 × IQR. Dots represent individual assemblages.

On the other hand, we detected different trends in the correlation between the Artiodactyla index and altitudinal gradient (masl; Figure 5). Assemblages from the first temporal component showed a negative and non-significant correlation with altitude (r = −0.52, p = 0.48). For the second temporal component we found a negative and significant correlation (r = −0.75, p = 0.03). Finally, for third temporal component was obtained a positive significant correlation (r = 0.84, p = 0.03).

Figure 5.

Artiodactyla index over the altitudinal gradient (masl).

The mortality profiles of camelid remains indicated similar patterns for the first and second temporal components. A total of 140 elements with diagnostic zones were recovered, enabling the determination of the age at death of the camelids. Although a smaller number of remains were available for the first temporal component, a strong and significant positive correlation (r = 0.96; p = 0.008) was observed in the different age categories represented for the first and second temporal components. In both cases, adult was the most frequent category (Figure 6). For the third component, few elements with features allowing for the determination of the age at death of the individuals were recovered. However, the results indicate a tendency toward the exploitation of subadults.

Figure 6.

Mortality profiles of camelids across the temporal components.

Residential sites and rock shelters showed differences in consumption patterns. We determined that rock shelters presented highest values of the diversity index (Figure 7), while community-scale sites showed greater diversity than domestic-scale sites.

Figure 7.

Box plot of Simpson diversity index (1/D) in domestic scale sites, community scale sites and rock shelters. Each boxplot shows the distribution of values per context. The boxes represent the interquartile range (25th–75th percentiles), the horizontal line within each box indicates the median, and the “×” represents the mean. Whiskers extend to the minimum and maximum values within 1.5 times the interquartile range. Individual data points are shown as dots.

Additionally, we evaluated the relationship between the altitudinal gradient (masl) and the Simpson diversity index (Figure 8). A positive and significant correlation was recorded for the first temporal component (r = 0.95, p = 0.05), while a non-significant positive correlation was obtained for the second temporal component (r = 0.17, p = 0.69) and the third temporal component (r = 0.59, p = 0.22).

Figure 8.

Simpson diversity index (1/D) over the altitudinal gradient (masl).

Discussion

The presented results indicated changes in faunal exploitation over time. A decreasing trend in the consumption of Artiodactyla was recognized (Figure 9). Two processes converged to explain this change: population growth from the 7th century CE onward and climate fluctuations, especially from the 11th century CE onward (Cahiza et al., 2021; Kock et al., 2020). Between the 3rd and 11th centuries, Artiodactyla dominated archaeofaunal assemblages, but since the 7th century, their consumption declined, and people began to incorporate more lower-ranking resources into their diets. In recent works (Garate et al., 2025), based on osteometric and isotopic analysis, we proposed that subsistence strategies at residential sites from the first and second temporal components were characterized by a combination of llama pastoralism and guanaco hunting.

Figure 9.

Demographic trends based on summed probability and variations in the Artiodactyla index across centuries. Colors indicate phases of arid (yellow) and wetter (purple) phases according to Kock et al. (2020). Red lines mark megadrought phases in South America (Cook et al., 2022).

From the 11th century CE onward, coinciding with the worsening climatic conditions (Cook et al., 2022; Kock et al., 2020), a process of area abandonment took place (Cahiza et al., 2021), and the Artiodactyla index experienced a sharp decline. The only evidence of human presence for this temporal component was registered in rock shelters, indicating higher mobility than in previous centuries. The obtained results showed an expansion of the diet, with higher proportion of low-ranking taxa (rodents, dasypodids, and birds). Previous taphonomic analysis of these assemblages (Garate, 2025) identified alternating use of rock shelters by humans and natural agents, with some faunal remains likely deposited by noon-anthropic processes. However, the presence of anthropogenic modifications and a significant proportion of burned bones (Figure 3) support the inference that humans intentionally exploited a broader range of taxa (Garate, 2025). A positive and significant correlation between the altitudinal gradient and Artiodactyla index was registered. We deduce that this could be understand as a result of opportunistic hunting. Camelid exploitation increased in upper zones, aligning with natural distribution of these resources. Furthermore, we determined the exploitation of Rheidae, Geoffroea decorticans, and Neltuma spp. in the valley floor. These resources are only available in lower areas of the region, and there is no evidence of their consumption in upper sectors. We argue that between the 11th and 16th centuries, subsistence strategies were oriented toward the opportunistic exploitation of resources based on their natural distribution. This occurred in a context of high mobility in the area.

Finally, from the 15th century onward, some sites with defensive characteristics (pukaras) began to emerge. For example, Loma Pircada is a site located in Chuquis locality, at 1600 masl. Excavations at this site revealed the presence of burnt Zea mays and camelid bones (Carrizo et al., 2001). Unfortunately, we do not have enough excavation work at the site, but we believe that the earliest evidence would indicate a process of reoccupation and the reactivation of traditional agro-pastoral systems in the area.

Based on available evidences, we identified four phases of human strategies linked to demographic and environmental changes. First, the exploitation phase (r) corresponds to the colonization of the area by village populations. This phase coincided with first temporal component (200–600 CE; Cahiza et al., 2021). During this phase, humans developed an agropastoral strategy combined with the hunting of guanacos and, to a lesser extent, small fauna. The management of llama herds involved the complementary use of different altitudinal environments and resources (Garate et al., 2025). Artiodactyla index highlights the central role of these animals in human consumption. This strategy proved effective and facilitated the adaptive success of human populations, which was reflected in a process of demographic growth.

Secondly, the conservation phase (K) corresponds to the period of demographic expansion. This demographic growth has been interpreted as the result of improved local climatic conditions (Cahiza et al., 2021; Kock et al., 2020) and the success of economic strategies (Garate et al., 2025). We found high values of Artiodactyla index in assemblages from the second temporal component (600–1000 CE). These values indicate that the consumption of artiodactyls remained significant. However, a decline in this index was recorded, accompanied by an increase in taxonomic diversity. It is possible that the increasing demographic pressure on high-ranking resources may have led to a progressive decline in the availability of guanacos. Although artiodactyls continued to play a central role in local economies, the increase in hunting of lower-ranking taxa suggests a rise in the procurement and processing costs of higher-ranking resources (Bettinger, 2009; Muscio, 2004; Winterhalder and Goland, 1993, 1997). The exploitation of llamas, on the other hand, would have been oriented toward their preservation until advanced ages, ensuring efficient use of their secondary products. The presence of neonates and seniles in the second temporal component indicates that the camelids were being bred near the sites at that time, reflecting a managed and sustained herd. Similar processes have been observed in various parts of the Argentine Andean region. Examples of this include dietary expansion proposals around 1000 CE in Calchaquí Valleys (Belotti, 2015; Izeta, 2007), Tinogasta (Miyano, 2018), and specialization in llama consumption in Antofagasta de la Sierra (Grant and Escola, 2015; Olivera and Grant, 2008). In the case of northern La Rioja, demographic growth likely drove subsistence adjustments through specialization in llama management combined with a process of dietary diversification. Furthermore, a marked change is observed in the third temporal component, suggesting a shift in camelid exploitation strategies.

The release phase (Ω) was identified from 1000 CE onward. This coincided with the onset of the Medieval Climate Anomaly and the increase in aridity (Kock et al., 2020). Gunderson and Holling (2002) assert that this phase occurs when the accumulated biomass becomes increasingly fragile and is suddenly released by external agents. In the study area, the release phase implied changes in socioecological conditions. Human ecodynamics involved the search for new ecological patches to west, an increase in mobility, the use of rock shelters, and a greater exploitation of wild resources (such as rodents, armadillos, birds, eggs, chañar, and algarrobo trees). This does not mean that the agropastoral strategy was abandoned. It is likely that these practices continued to be developed in the newly colonized areas.

Finally, the reorganization phase (α) began around 15th century, with the reoccupation of the area. Despite the emergence of archeological sites with new architectural characteristics, the earliest evidence suggests the reactivation of the agropastoral system.

Conclusions

This paper examines human ecodynamics between the 3rd and 17th centuries in northern La Rioja, with an emphasis on subsistence strategies. We identified changes in consumption patterns that were related to fluctuations in environmental conditions and demographic trends. Based on archaeofaunal, demographic and environmental we propose that between 200 and 1000 CE, wild and domestic camelids were the most important prey for human populations. However, the adaptive success of these practices, along with improved environmental conditions, facilitated demographic growth. This resulted in increased pressure on wild camelids and a reduction in their availability. People adjusted their strategies by incorporating small fauna into their diet while maintaining the traditional agropastoral system. In a context of worsening conditions and the onset of increased aridity, local populations migrated, leading to the abandonment of the area. In this context of heightened mobility, the consumption of artiodactyls declined, while the hunting of dasypodids, rodents, and birds, the gathering of rheid eggs, and the exploitation of Geoffroea decorticans (chañar) and Neltuma spp. (algarrobo) gained greater significance. Finally, from the 15th century CE onward, a new phase of village occupation began, albeit with distinct characteristics, involving the reactivation of agro-pastoral systems.

Supplemental Material

sj-xlsx-1-hol-10.1177_09596836251358699 – Supplemental material for An approach to human ecodynamics and resilience in the economic trajectories of agropastoral societies in northern La Rioja (Argentina) from the 3rd to 17th centuries CE

Supplemental material, sj-xlsx-1-hol-10.1177_09596836251358699 for An approach to human ecodynamics and resilience in the economic trajectories of agropastoral societies in northern La Rioja (Argentina) from the 3rd to 17th centuries CE by Enrique Garate in The Holocene

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

I thank Pablo Cahiza for his support with fieldwork and for reviewing this paper. I also acknowledge CONICET for providing me with a doctoral fellowship to conduct this research.

Author contribution

Enrique Garate: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Investigation; Methodology; Writing - original draft.

Data availability statement

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Funding

The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: ANPCyT through the PICT GRF2018-2138 project, and Secretaría de Investigaciones y Posgrado, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo (06/G787).

Ethical considerations

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal participants.

ORCID iD

Enrique Garate

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

References

Acuto

(2007) Fragmentación vs. Integración comunal: Repensando el período tardío del Noroeste Argentino. Estudios Atacameños 34: 71–95.

Altamirano

(1983) Guía Osteológica de Cérvidos Andinos. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.

Belotti López de Medina

(2010) Una primera aproximación al desarrollo del modo de producción tribal y la evolución del registro zooarqueológico en el sur de los valles Calchaquíes (Catamarca). In: Gutiérrez

De Nigris

Fernández

, et al. (eds) Zooarqueología a Principios Del Siglo XXI: Aportes Teóricos, Metodológicos y Casos de Estudio. Buenos Aires: Ediciones del Espinillo, pp.189–198.

Belotti López de Mecina

(2015) Subsistence and economy at the Calchaquí Valley (Salta, Argentina) during the Regional Developments Period (ca. 1000-1430 AD): Zooarchaeology of Las Pailas locality. Journalof Archaeological Science Reports 4:461–476.

Belotti López de Medina

(2024) Diet breadth and biodiversity in the pre-hispanic south-central Andes (Western South America) during the Holocene: An exploratory analysis and review. Holocene 34(6): 759–777.

Berberián

Nielsen

(1988) Sistemas de asentamiento prehispánico en la etapa Formativa del valle de Tafí (Pcia. De Tucumán- Rep. Arg). In: Berberián

(ed.) Sistemas de Asentamiento Prehispánicos en el Valle de Tafí. Córdoba: Editorial Comechingonia, pp.21–51.

Bettinger

(2009) Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Five Simple Models. New York: Eliot Werner Publications, Inc.

Biurrun

Agüero

Teruel

(2012) Consideraciones Fitogeográficas Sobre La Vegetación de Los Llanos de La Rioja. Catamarca: Serie: Estudios sobre el ambiente y el territorio N°5, INTA.

Boone

(1992) Competition, conflict, and the development of social hierarchies. In: Smith

Winterhalder

(eds) Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, pp.301–337.

10.

Bradley

(ed.) (2015) Paleoclimatology. Reconstructing Climates of the Quaternary, 3rd ed.

Amsterdam:

Elsevier.

11.

Bradley

Alverson

Pedersen

(2003) Challenges of a changing earth: Past perspectives, future concerns. In: Alverson

Bradley

Pedersen

(eds) Paleoclimate, Global Change and the Future. Verlag: Springer, pp.163–167.

12.

Broughton

(1994) Late Holocene resource intensification in the Sacramento Valley, California: The vertebrate evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science 21: 501–514.

13.

Broughton

Cannon

Bayham

, et al. (2011) Prey body size and ranking in Zooarchaeology: Theory, empirical evidence, and applications from the Northern Great Basin. American Antiquity 76: 403–428.

14.

Cahiza

Sabatini

Iniesta

(2018b) Los paisajes sociales del piedemonte nororiental de la Sierra de Velasco, La Rioja (siglos III-IX d.C). Arqueología 24(3): 15–33.

15.

Cahiza

Garate

Sabatini

, et al. (2021) Temporal dynamics of La Rioja village landscapes, Argentina. Journal of Archaeological Science Reports 39: 103123.

16.

Cahiza

García Llorca

Iniesta

, et al. (2018a) El Chañarcito: Arquitectura, materialidad y consumo de un espacio residencial aldeano de la Sierra de Velasco, La Rioja. Comechingonia. Revista de Arqueología 21(1): 71–98.

17.

Carlson

Edenhamn

(2000) Extinction dynamics and the regional persistence of a tree frog metapopulation. Proceedings. Biological Sciences/the Royal Society 267(1450): 1311–1313. 2000 Jul 7.

18.

Carrizo

Oliszewski

Cano

(2001) Hallazgo e interpretación de Zea mays L. en el sitio arqueológico Loma Pircada (La Rioja, Argentina). Asociación Paleontológica Argentina. In: Publicación Especial 8. XI Simposio argentino de Paleobotánica y Palinología, pp.78–83.

19.

Compagnucci

(2000) Impact of ENSO events on the hydrological system of the Cordillera de los Andes during the last 450 years. In: Smolka

Volkheimer

(eds) Southern Hemisphere Paleo- and Neoclimates. Berlín: Springer, pp.175–185.

20.

Cook

Smerdon

Cook

, et al. (2022) Megadroughts in the Common Era and the anthropocene. Nat Rev Earth Environ 3: 741–757.

21.

Dantas

(2011) Modos de explotación y consumo de animales en el Valle de Ambato (Catamarca, Argentina) desde una perspectiva diacrónica: El caso del sitio Martínez 3. Archaeofauna 20: 103–118.

22.

Davies

Douglass

Fanning

, et al. (2021) Engaging with archaeological record formation to inform on past resilience. In Russo

Brainerd

(eds.) Resilience & archaeology. University of Cambridge: ARC 36.1, pp. 51–74.

23.

Diaz

Trigo

Hughes

, et al. (2011) Spatial and temporal characteristics of climate in medieval times revisited. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 92: 1487–1500.

24.

Drennan

Peterson

(2005) Early chiefdom communities compared: The settlement pattern record of Chifeng, the Alto Magdalena, and the Valley of Oaxaca. In: Blanton

(ed.) Settlement, Subsistence and Social Complexity. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, pp.119–154.

25.

Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) (2020) ArcGIS Desktop: Release 10.8 [Software]. ESRI.

26.

Figueroa

(2010) Organización de la producción agrícola en contextos sociales no igualitarios: El caso del Valle de Ambato, Catamarca, entre los siglos VII y XI d.C. PhD Thesis, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina

27.

Fitzhugh

Butler

Bovy

, et al. (2019) Human ecodynamics: A perspective for the study of long-term change in socioecological systems. Journal of Archaeological Science Reports 23: 1077–1094.

28.

Flores-Aqueveque

Arias

Gómez-Fontealba

, et al. (2024) The South American climate during the last two millenia. In: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science.

29.

France

(2009) Human and Nonhuman Bone Identification: A Color Atlas. New York: CRC Press.

30.

Franklin

(1983) Contrasting socioecologies of South America’s wild camelids: The vicuña and the guanaco. In: Eisenberg

Kleiman

(eds) Advances in the Study of Mammalian Behavior. Shawnee Mission, KS: American Society of Mammalogists, pp.573–629.

31.

Garate

(2021) Tendencias en el consumo de faunas en el piedemonte oriental de la Sierra de Velasco (Departamento de Castro Barros, La Rioja) – siglos III al X d.C. Intersecciones en Antropología 22(2): 237–248.

32.

Garate

(2025) Zooarqueología de las ocupaciones humanas durante el Holoceno Tardío – siglos III al XVII DC- en el sector oriental de la Sierra de Velasco (departamento de Castro Barros, La Rioja)-. PhD Thesis, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Argentina.

33.

Garate

Cahiza

García

, et al. (2024) Análisis comparativo del descarte de restos faunísticos en la vertiente oriental de la Sierra de Velasco (La Rioja, Argentina) en la segunda mitad del primer milenio DC. Estudios Atacameños 70: e6070.

34.

Garate

Cahiza

Gheggi

(2025) Patrones dietarios de camélidos y subsistencia humana en la vertiente oriental de la Sierra de Velasco a través del análisis osteométrico y de isótopos estables (δ¹³C y δ¹⁵N). Revista del museo de Antropología 18: 111–128.

35.

Q-

Zheng

J-

Hao

Z-

, et al. (2010) Temperature variation through 2000 years in China: An uncertainty analysis of reconstruction and regional difference. Geophysical Research Letters 37: L03703.

36.

González

(1955) Contextos culturales y cronología relativa en el área central del N.O. Argentino. Anales de Arqueología y Etnología 11: 7–32.

37.

Grant

Escola

(2015) La persistencia de un modo de producción doméstico durante el período Tardío: El caso de Corral Alto (Antofagasta de la Sierra, Argentina). Estudios Atacameños 51: 99–121.

38.

Grayson

(1984) Quantitative Zooarchaeology: Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

39.

Grayson

(1991) Alpine faunas from the White Mountains, California: Adaptive change in the late prehistoric great basin? Journal of Archaeological Science 18: 483–506.

40.

Gunderson

Holling

(2002) Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems. Washington, DC: Island Press.

41.

Harrison

Taylor

(1997) Empirical evidence for metapopulation dinamics. In: Hansky

Gilpin

(eds) Metapopulation Biology, Ecology, Genetics and Evolution. San Diego: Academic Press, pp.27–41.

42.

Heitz

Hinz

Laabs

, et al. (2021) Mobility as resilience capacity in northern Alpine Neolithic settlement communities. In Russo

Brainerd

(eds.) Resilience & archaeology. University of Cambridge: ARC 36.1, pp.75-106.

43.

Holling

(1973) Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4(1): 1–23.

44.

Hughes

Diaz

(1994) Was there a ?medieval warm period?, and if so, where and when? Climatic Change 26: 109–142.

45.

Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN) (2020) Modelo Digital de Elevaciones [Modelo de elevación digital]. Buenos Aires: IGN.

46.

Izeta

(2007) Zooarqueología Del Sur de Los Valles Calchaquíes (Provincias de Catamarca y Tucumán, República Argentina): Análisis de Conjuntos Faunísticos Del Primer Milenio A.D. Oxford: BAR International Series.

47.

Kaplan

Hill

(1992) The evolutionary ecology of food acquisition. In: Smith

Winterhalder

(eds) Evolutionary Ecology and Human Behavior. Chicago: Aldine de Gruyter, pp.167–201.

48.

Kaufmann

(2009) Estructura de Edad y Sexo En Guanaco: Estudios Actualísticos y Arqueológicos En Pampa y Patagonia. Buenos Aires: Publicaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropología.

49.

Kelly

(1995) The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

50.

Kock

Schittek

Mächtle

, et al. (2020) Multi-Centennial-Scale variations of South American summer monsoon intensity in the southern Central Andes (24–27°S) during the Late Holocene. Geophysical Research Letters 47(4): 1–11.

51.

Laguens

(2006) Diferenciación social en comunidades aldeanas del valle de Ambato, Catamarca, Argentina (s. IV-X D.C. Chungara 38(2): 211–222.

52.

Laguens

Figueroa

Dantas

(2013) Tramas y prácticas agro-pastoriles en el valle de Ambato, Catamarca (siglos VI y XI d.C. Arqueología 19(1): 131–152.

53.

López

(2009) Arqueofaunas, osteometría y evidencia artefactual en Pastos Grandes, Puna de Salta: secuencia de cambio a lo largo del Holoceno temprano, medio y tardío en el sitio Alero Cuevas. Intersecciones en Antropología 10: 105–119.

54.

Lüning

Gałka

Bamonte

, et al. (2019) The medieval climate anomaly in South America. Quaternary International 508: 70–87.

55.

Lyman

(1994) Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge: University Press.

56.

Lyman

(2008) Quantitative Paleozoology. Cambridge: University Press.

57.

Martel-Cea

Maldonado

Grosjean

, et al. (2016) Late Holocene environmental changes as recorded in the sediments of high Andean Laguna Chepical, central Chile (32°S; 3050 m a.s.l.). Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 461: 44–54.

58.

Mayta

Maldonado

(2022) Climatic and ecological changes in the subtropical high Andes during the last 4500 years. Frontiers in Earth Science 10: 1–15.

59.

McGlade

(1995) Archaeology and the ecodynamics of human-modified landscapes. Antiquity 69: 113–132.

60.

Mengoni

(2010) Zooarqueología en la práctica: Algunos temas metodológicos. Xama 19-23: 83–113.

61.

Mengoni Goñalons

Yacobaccio

(2006) The domestication of South American camelids. A view from the south-central Andes. In: Zeder

Bradley

Emshwiller

, et al (eds) Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp.228–244.

62.

Mercolli

(2016) El consumo de camélidos silvestres por parte de las poblaciones humanas de la Quebrada de Humahuaca, Pcia. de Jujuy, Argentina. Arqueología 22(Dossier): 37–55.

63.

Miyano

(2018) El uso de animales por las sociedades agropastoriles tempranas: Análisis zooarqueológico de un basural de la aldea de Palo Blanco (valle de Fiambalá, Catamarca). Arqueología 24(1): 77–101.

64.

Morales

Bustos

Maidana

(2015) Registro de diatomeas de los últimos 1400 años de la Laguna Pululos, Jujuy, Argentina. Ecología Austral 25: 182–191.

65.

Morales

Cook

Barichivich

, et al. (2020) Six hundred years of South American tree rings reveal an increase in severe hydroclimatic events since mid-20th century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117: 16816–16823.

66.

Muscio

(2004) Dinámica poblacional y evolución durante el Período Agroalfarero Temprano en el Valle de San Antonio de los Cobres, Puna de Salta, Argentina. PhD Thesis, Universidad Nacional de Buenos Aires, Argentina.

67.

Newton

Coward

Elliott

, et al. (2024) Understanding long-term human ecodynamics through the lens of ecosystem collapse. Holocene 34(10): 1439–1453.

68.

Núñez Regueiro

(1974) Conceptos instrumentales y marco teórico en relación al análisis del desarrollo cultural del Noroeste argentino. Revista de Antropología de la Universidad de Córdoba 5: 169–190.

69.

Olivera

Grant

(2008) Economía y ambiente durante el Holoceno Tardío (ca. 4500-400) de Antofagasta de la Sierra (Puna meridional argentina). In: Acosta

Loponte

Mucciolo

(eds) Temas de arqueología: Estudios tafonómicos y zooarqueológicos (I). Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano, pp.99–131.

70.

Olivera

(2001) Sociedades agro-pastoriles tempranas: El Formativo Inferior en el noroeste argentino. In: Berberián

Nielsen

(eds) Historia Argentina Prehispánica. Córdoba: Ediciones Brujas, pp.83–126.

71.

Ortiz

Madozzo Jaén

Jayat

(2012) Micromammals and paleoenvironments: climatic oscillations in the monte desert of Catamarca (Argentina) during the last two millenia. Journal of Arid Environments 77: 103–109.

72.

Pacheco Torres

Altamirano Enciso

Guerra Porras

(1979) Guía osteológica para camélidos sudamericanos. Serie Investigaciones, 4. Departamento Académico de Ciencias Histórico Sociales, Universidad Mayor de San Marcos.

73.

Raviña

Callegari

(1992) La presencia aguada en el departamento de Castro Barros. Arqueología 1: 50–70.

74.

Redman

(1999) Human Impact on Ancient Environments. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.

75.

Redman

(2005) Resilience theory in archaeology. American Anthropologist 107: 70–77.

76.

Reitz

Wing

(eds) (2008) Zooarchaeology, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

77.

Sabatini

(2019) Los paisajes aldeanos de la Sierra de Velasco (300-1000 D.C.). Investigaciones arqueológicas de la cuenca de Anillaco, La Rioja. PhD Thesis, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Argentina.

78.

Sabatini

Cahiza

(2021) La configuración del paisaje aldeano en Anillaco (La Rioja, Argentina) durante el primer milenio d.C. Intersecciones en Antropología 22(2): 145–156.

79.

Sampietro Vattuone

Peña Monné

Maldonado

, et al. (2018) Cambios ambientales durante el Holoceno superior registrados en secuencias morfosedimentarias fluvio-eólicas del Valle de Santa María (Noroeste Argentino). Boletín Geológico y Minero 129(4): 647–669.

80.

Scheffer

(2009) Critical Transitions in Nature and Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

81.

Sierpe González

(2015) Atlas osteológico del guanaco. Ediciones Universidad de Magallanes.

82.

Smith

Bettinger

Bishop

, et al. (1983) Anthropological applications of optimal foraging theory: A critical review [and comments and reply]. Current Anthropology 24(5): 625–651.

83.

Stine

(1994) Extreme and persistent drought in California and Patagonia during mediaeval time. Nature 369: 546–549.

84.

Stine

(1998) Medieval Climatic Anomaly in the Americas. In: Issar

Brown

(eds) Water, Environment and Society in Times of Climatic Change. Kluwer, Dordrecht: Springer, pp.43–67.

85.

Tarragó

(2000) Chacras y pukara. Desarrollos sociales tardíos. In: Tarragó

(ed.) Nueva Historia Argentina, vol. 1. Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, pp.257–300.

86.

Walker

Holling

Carpenter

, et al. (2004) Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 9(2): 1–9.

87.

Wheeler

(1995) Evolution and present situation of the South American Camelidae. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 54: 271–295.

88.

Winterhalder

Goland

(1993) On population, foraging efficiency and plant domestication. Current Anthropology 34: 710–715.

89.

Winterhalder

(1981) Optimal foraging strategies and hunter-gatherer research in anthropology: Theory and models. In: Winterhalder

Smith

(eds) Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analyses. Chicago: University of Chicago, pp.13–35.

90.

Winterhalder

Goland

(1997) An evolutionary ecology perspective on diet choice, risk and plant domestication. In: Gremillion

(ed.) People, Plants and Landscapes. Studies in Paleoethnobotany. Alabama: The University of Alabama Press, pp.123–160.

91.

Winterhalder

Smith

(1981) New perspectives on hunter-gatherer socioecology. In: Smith

Winterhalder

(eds) Hunter-Gatherer Foraging Strategies: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analyses. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp.1–12.

92.

Yacobaccio

(2003) Procesos de intensificación y de domesticación de camélidos en los andes centro-sur. Memorias del III Congreso Mundial sobre Camélidos Tomo I. Potosí, pp.211–216.

93.

Yacobaccio

Madero

Malmierca

, et al. (1997–1998) Caza, domesticación y pastoreo de camélidos en la Puna Argentina. Relaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropología 22-23: 389–418.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.02 MB