Fake news and information literacy: The case of the “Secret School” in an educational context

Fake news and historical misinformation

Fake news is deliberately fabricated information that imitates the style and format of legitimate news outlets to mislead or manipulate audiences (Lazer et al., 2018). It can range from entirely false stories to misleading reports that contain partial truths but are framed to distort understanding (Tandoc et al., 2018). The term “fake news” gained significant attention during the 2016 U.S. presidential election, but its origins date back to historical instances of misinformation and propaganda (Allcott and Gentzkow, 2017). Unlike satire or parody, which have long been recognized forms of expression, fake news seeks to deceive, making it particularly dangerous when consuming information. Defined as false or misleading information presented as news, fake news can influence public opinion, undermine democratic institutions, and distort historical understanding (Wardle and Derakhshan, 2017).

Moreover, social media platforms have accelerated the rapid spread of fake news in the digital age, where algorithms prioritize engaging content over factual accuracy (Vosoughi et al., 2018). Studies show that false information disseminates more quickly and widely than factual information, mainly because fake news is often crafted to elicit emotional responses, making it more likely to be shared (Vosoughi et al., 2018). The rise of user-generated content and the democratization of information dissemination have created an environment where individuals with little or no formal training in journalism or fact-checking can significantly impact public discourse (Tandoc et al., 2018).

Indeed, the consequences of misinformation are extensive, impacting not only individual beliefs but also societal cohesion and trust in democratic institutions (McIntyre, 2018). Fake news has been linked to political polarization, a decline in confidence in the media, and even real-world violence (Lewandowsky et al., 2017). In multicultural societies, fake news can exacerbate social divisions, as it often manipulates cultural, racial, or religious stereotypes to incite fear and mistrust (Farkas and Schou, 2018).

In multicultural contexts, fake news can assume an additional dimension, as it is often employed to manipulate historical narratives or promote divisions along ethnic, religious, or cultural lines (Farkas and Schou, 2018). Educators and librarians working in multicultural settings must know how historical myths and misinformation intersect with cultural identity (Katsira et al., 2025). Teaching students, particularly those connected to their cultural heritage, to critically evaluate historical narratives through information literacy programs can help them understand history in a more nuanced way and resist attempts to shape their perceptions through fake news (Jolls and Johnsen, 2018).

Information literacy and critical thinking

Various authors have defined information literacy in different ways, reflecting diverse perspectives on the concept. However, these definitions primarily differ in the scope and complexity of the skills they encompass, as well as their interpretations of cognitive and reasoning abilities. Despite these variations, the core elements of information literacy remain consistent, emphasizing the fundamental processes of thinking and reasoning (Macpherson, 2004).

Information literacy emerged in the 1970s and has become a key focus for library and information professionals. Zurkowski (1974) defined an information-literate person as someone skilled in using various information tools and resources. Kuhlthau (1987) expanded this definition to include traditional literacy and computer skills. Information literacy has evolved in tandem with technological advancements, emphasizing the use of digital resources and personal experiences. In 2004, CILIP defined it as the ability to identify, locate, evaluate, use, and ethically communicate information (McKeever et al., 2017). Despite varying definitions, the core concept remains the same: effectively accessing and utilizing information. Information literacy is now critical in school libraries.

Scholars argue that education systems must prioritize critical thinking and media literacy to equip students with the tools needed to analyze the reliability of sources and distinguish between credible and non-credible information (Mihailidis and Viotty, 2017). Programs to develop these skills have shown the potential to enhance students’ ability to recognize and resist misinformation (Wineburg and McGrew, 2016).

As Herring (2011: 2) stated, “Information literacy skills should be part of every student’s learning, and the focus in schools should be on how students can use information literacy skills to enhance their learning.” In today’s knowledge-based society, promoting and developing these skills is essential. Students must possess the skills to access, utilize, comprehend, and disseminate the vast amount of information available on smartphones, tablets, and laptops. Cultivating these information literacy skills will benefit students throughout their education and future lives, both in and out of the workplace (Kimmel et al., 2014; Reed and Stavreva, 2006; Smith, 2003).

Information literacy is tied to the educational role of libraries. The American Library Association has developed a new, active, and integrated learning model centered on information resources. This model replaces traditional textbooks and lectures with learning experiences that promote lifelong usage of the library and its resources. This educational process empowers learners to (a) recognize when information is needed, (b) identify the specific information required to address a particular problem, (c) locate the necessary information, (d) evaluate the information they have identified, (e) organize it, and (f) utilize it effectively to resolve the issues they face (American Library Association, 1989). Librarians must cultivate critical thinking skills and understand how to facilitate these skills in their students, as the literature suggests that critical thinking is the most essential factor in users/students achieving information literacy.

Atton (1994: 310) characterizes critical thinking as the willingness to question assumptions, recognize when to ask them, and evaluate and analyze information. Acquiring essential thinking skills enables us to gather, interpret, and evaluate information more effectively, thereby improving our understanding of its content. It helps us assess information, understand the author’s opinion, and determine future implications. Totten (1990) concludes that critical thinking entails the ability to: - judge the reliability of a source; - distinguish between facts and points of view; - detect hidden agendas; - recognize bias, logical fallacies, and lack of relevance (p. 348). This suggests that users should have confidence in the validity of the information, evaluate its utility by considering whether the author’s perspective aligns with their ideology and goals, and quickly assess its relevance and value. Critical thinking enables users to identify and isolate the information they need after navigating through a wealth of available data (Korobili and Togia, 2015).

Didactics of history

The development of historical thinking has become the primary goal of history education in recent years, with the Internet providing various services and tools that could transform traditional teaching methods into active learning processes. Since the 1960s, history education reform in the Western world has been grounded in the theoretical foundations of constructive, active, inquiry-based, discovery, and laboratory learning. These tools engage students in analyzing primary sources, synthesizing historical information, and constructing knowledge. This transformation can enhance historical education in four key ways: by offering access to historical data and diverse resources, thus facilitating a deeper understanding of historical content; by promoting historical thinking through engagement in historical research; by nurturing the creation of historical learning communities; and by fostering new methods of research, teaching, and publishing (digital humanities; Repoussi et al., 2023).

The Internet can contribute to the development of historical thinking within the context of history education in several ways. First, it transforms the conventional teaching and learning environment into one characterized by search, interaction, and extended communication. Second, it provides access to electronic resources that can be utilized to develop various approaches to historical thinking (Repoussi and Tsivas, 2004). This familiarity with digital resources shifts students from textbook learning to constructivist learning through active engagement in processes that promote learning history by making history (Levstik and Barton, 2011). Furthermore, the fragmentary and often contradictory nature of primary sources on the Internet can help students grasp the problematic nature of historical evidence and create cognitive conflict with their knowledge and perceptions (Tally and Goldenberg, 2005).

Due to their intangible nature and unique characteristics, digital historical resources present challenges in assessing their reliability, validity, and legibility. In particular, Internet historical resources are referred to as “meta-sources”; they represent digitized versions of sources (primary or secondary) in the form of image files (e.g., JPG, TIFF, BMP). Their transformative nature alters their physiognomy from static and linear to dynamic and evolving. Consequently, this raises challenges related to their characterization and evaluation, such as determining the time of creation of the source, its nature, and its pedagogical compatibility (Repoussi, 2004).

Finally, Wineburg (2018) argues that, due to the ease of accessing information today, it is essential for teachers and students to learn how to critically evaluate that information, recognize fake news, and differentiate between reliable and unreliable sources. He emphasizes that the core issue is not just teaching students how to locate information on the Internet but also equipping them with the skills to evaluate it critically and familiarizing them with the procedures for assessing historical information online. Moreover, evaluation is vital for utilizing online resources as evidence to support conclusions, interpretations, and answers in history classrooms.

The historical context of the “Secret School”

The “Secret School” myth asserts that during the Ottoman occupation of Greece (1453–1821), Greek children were denied access to formal education, leading priests to operate secret night schools to preserve the Greek language, culture, and Orthodox faith.

The myth of the Secret School was a pervasive belief among Greeks throughout the post-revolutionary period. This myth was perpetuated through various forms of cultural expression, including art and folklore. It reached its apogee after the creation of the famous painting by N. Gyzis entitled “Krifó scholió” (1899; see Figure 1). This iconic representation of the myth, created in the late 19th century, depicts a dimly lit room where a priest secretly teaches children. The painting’s atmosphere—dark, quiet, and reverent—captures the clandestine nature of the myth, enhancing its emotional appeal.

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Figure 1.

N. Gyzis, “Krifó scholió” [Secret School].

The poem of the same title (Krifó scholió, 1899) by I. Polemis romanticizes the idea of children attending school at night: “On the outside, black desperation, the tangible shadow of bitter slavery, but inside in the vaulted church, the church which assumes every night the shape of a school, there is the shivering light of the oil lamp lighting up the dreams and gathering the enslaved children from all around. . .” Both works, the painting and the poem, were created 70 years after the end of the Greek Revolution.

There is also the popular folk song “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star” (“My Little Bright Moon” is the title of a Greek variant). The lyrics of a well-known version are as follows: “My little bright moon, shine on my way, that I may go to school, to learn to read and write, and the teachings of God. . .” These lyrics suggest that Greek children during the Ottoman Empire (1453–1821) attended night schools to avoid detection by Turkish authorities, who were believed to have banned the operation of these schools. C. Fauriel (1825) did not include it in his collection, but he published another folk song with a completely different theme, which begins with the words “My bright moon / shine and walk. . .” As we know it today, the song was first published by D. Sanders in 1844 and later by A. Passow (1860) and many others. Sanders considered the song a nursery rhyme, while Passow viewed it as a lullaby.

Nevertheless, the song was very early associated with the legend of the “Secret School.” The scholar Gr. Papadopoulou states: “[The pupils] at night, coming out of school, went to the teacher and recited the well-known lyrics of ‘My bright moon.’ Yet, this folk song suggests that the students attended night school, but not necessarily in secret. We know that the teachers or priest-teachers of that time provided lessons whenever convenient for them, possibly even at night. However, it is relatively futile to search for logical interpretations in popular creations” (Patrinelis, 2005). In Greek collective memory, the image of these secret schools, with children learning by candlelight, is emotionally powerful and symbolically important. It portrays the Greek people as resilient and resourceful in the face of foreign oppression. However, this narrative is not consistent with historical evidence.

There is no evidence that the schools operated during this period. Similarly, there is no evidence to suggest that Turkish intervention prevented Greek schools from operating or hindered educational provision. This information was superseded by later evidence (Charitos, 1998). The period was one of romanticism when the “Great Idea” took shape in the Greek consciousness. Research by scholars such as N. Svoronos and A. Dimaras has demonstrated that the Ottomans permitted religious communities to manage their schools. Many Greek schools operated openly during the Ottoman period, and the Orthodox Church played a significant role in preserving Greek education. The persistence of the myth of the Secret School is more attributable to its cultural and symbolic power than any historical reality (Dimaras, 1974). These cultural artifacts play a crucial role in perpetuating the myth of the Secret School despite the lack of historical evidence. They serve as emotional touchstones for Greek identity, evoking a sense of struggle and survival that resonates deeply with the Greek people. However, they complicate history teaching by blurring the line between fact and fiction.

Teaching the “Secret School” myth using the SIFT model

Information literacy encompasses the skills necessary to locate, retrieve, analyze, and effectively use information. As the demand for critical engagement with media and information has increased, various models have been created to guide students in acquiring these skills. In this study, we present an image that is claimed to be a primary source of evidence for the existence of the “Secret School” (Krifó scholió; see Figure 2). The photograph was digitally altered by E. Pagani using artificial intelligence (AI) and Photoshop to give the appearance of age and damage. In addition, a watermark with a fictitious logo and text was superimposed on the image: “Special Files of Greece,” which is said to be the source from which it was obtained.

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Figure 2.

E. Pagani “The Secret School” AI-generated image.

After thoroughly reviewing the literature, we have identified two promising pedagogies to adopt for our program: the SIFT and the CRAAP methods. Caulfield (2017) has developed the SIFT approach to source evaluation, an acronym for Stop, Investigate the source, Find better coverage, and Trace claims to the source. His approach is designed as a practical approach to quick source and claim investigation (Faix and Fyn, 2023). SIFT is gaining attention in librarian and academic circles (Bull et al., 2021; Fielding, 2019) and has been adapted and tested in both university and high school settings (Brodsky et al., 2021; Pavlounis et al., 2021). The SIFT approach has replaced traditional assessment techniques such as the CRAAP test, which relies on evaluating source material based on its Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose (Blakeslee, 2004). Checklist-style methods such as the CRAAP test have long been criticized for being ineffective, unrealistic, and time-consuming (Meola, 2004). In light of the growing criticism of the CRAAP Test and similar checklists that rely on close reading for assessment (Fielding, 2019), we adopted the SIFT method. SIFT was influenced by Wineburg and McGrew’s (2017) study, which found that professional fact-checkers using a lateral reading process were the fastest and most effective evaluators of web content in the study population. In contrast to CRAAP, SIFT steers researchers toward an external perspective by evaluating what other sources say about the source in question rather than the source itself (Hendrigan et al., 2024).

The first step in addressing the Secret School myth through the SIFT information literacy model was to define the assignment as “investigate whether the ‘Secret School’ actually existed during the Ottoman occupation.” This was a 1-hour project, so students were encouraged to ask critical questions about the myth, such as: “Where did this story come from?” “What evidence supports or refutes it?” and “Why has it persisted for so long?”

The fifth grade of primary school and the second grade of secondary school received a brochure (see Figure 3) featuring the AI-generated image, the image related to the painting “Secret School” by N. Gyzis, a quote from the popular poem (1899) by I. Polemis, and the folk song “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.”

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Figure 3.

The brochure of the educational program.

The purpose of the misdirection was to help students in both classes understand that even when a source appears valid (such as the watermarked photo from a non-existent organization), fake news can still exist unless a proper Internet search is conducted.

After defining the task, students proceeded to the information-seeking strategies stage, during which they identified potential sources of information. They were instructed to search for primary sources (such as Ottoman records, church documents, and historical accounts) and secondary sources (including scholarly articles and books by historians). They were also encouraged to explore cultural artifacts, such as Gyzis’s painting and Polemis’s poem, to understand how art and folklore have influenced the myth.

Research design

The methodology used in this study employed a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative analysis through a structured questionnaire with a qualitative field study research design (Creswell, 2012). The rationale for integrating these methods stems from the belief that no single methodological approach can fully capture the complexity of human behavior and experience, particularly in studies involving children and adolescents. The questionnaire facilitated the collection of quantifiable data, allowing for statistical analysis and assessment of students’ prior knowledge of the “Secret School” myth, their ability to identify fake news, and their level of information literacy across various variables, including age, school type, and gender. Meanwhile, the field study design enabled in-depth observations, providing context to the numerical data and enriching the understanding of children’s engagement, interactions, and responses within the program, based on direct observations and field notes collected by the librarian during the educational intervention. These notes captured students’ spontaneous reactions, questions, misconceptions, peer interactions, and overall engagement with the material. This observational data added contextual richness to the numerical findings and offered insights that could not be derived from the questionnaire alone. By combining these two approaches, the study achieves numerical precision and contextual depth, thus enhancing the validity and reliability of the findings.

Identity of the case study

This research was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of West Attica at its 32nd/29-11-2024 meeting, with protocol number 113415/25-11-2024. It took place in December 2024 in the libraries of a public primary school and a private secondary school in Greece. Participation was voluntary, and students had the option to opt out. The two schools were deliberately selected to ensure diversity in educational environments and student demographics, allowing for a comparative analysis. The study examined potential differences in students’ behaviors, experiences, and responses across different age groups and academic backgrounds, encompassing both primary and secondary schools.

The primary school sample consisted of 25 fifth-grade students (12 boys and 13 girls), typically aged between 11 and 12 years old. This group is at a crucial phase in their cognitive and social development as they prepare to transition to secondary school. Studying this age group yields valuable insights into how children in upper primary school engage with learning experiences and respond to research questions.

The secondary school sample consisted of 31 students (19 boys and 12 girls) in their second year, who were generally aged 13–14. This group was selected to contrast the younger participants and facilitate an in-depth comparison of attitudes, understanding, and engagement patterns across age groups.

Case study process

For this research, a previously presented brochure (see Figure 3) was distributed to students before the project started to evaluate their understanding of the historical myth of the Secret School and their ability to identify fake news and disinformation. The students completed a questionnaire after discussing the brochure without analyzing the reliability and origin of the images. The questions were categorized into the following sections: (a) questions concerning the images, the poem, and the folk song in the brochure; (b) questions about the historical context of the “Secret School;” and (c) questions regarding the students’ information literacy competencies.

After the students had completed the questionnaire, the librarian showed them the “Secret School” AI-generated image on the library projector. They then discussed the watermark and logo on the picture that read “Special Files of Greece.” The librarian asked the children a series of probing questions to gauge their understanding:

Next, the students were invited to verify the photo’s authenticity and investigate the Special Files of Greece organization. First, they were asked to search Google for the keyword “Special Files of Greece” (see Figure 4).

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Figure 4.

Google search results for the term “Special Files of Greece.”

The children were surprised that the “Special Files of Greece” were not included in the search results. One student then commented that he knew of a corporation that collected all the old files in Greece, but could not remember its name. In response to this comment, the librarian explained to the students the function of the General State Archives. At the end of the educational program, a discussion was held with the children about their impressions and the knowledge they had gained. They discussed the “Secret School” myth as a widely held societal belief. The younger generation, born into the Internet age, should be more aware of what they see online and what they are taught. They also acknowledged the critical role of online scientific research and the importance of information literacy. Finally, the importance of AI was emphasized, along with the rise of fake news and the misinformation it can generate.

Students’ familiarity with the myth of the Secret School

The first questions (questions 1–6) measured students’ familiarity with the myth of the Secret School. More specifically, according to the responses to question 1, almost all students (96.42%) were familiar with the myth of the Secret School (see Figure 5). It is interesting to note that only two primary school students were not familiar with this myth. The high percentage was not unexpected, as this myth is well-known in Greek history. This is particularly impressive, considering that the fifth-grade curriculum does not yet include the Greek Revolution, which is taught in the sixth grade.

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Figure 5.

Familiarity with the Secret School myth.

Questions 2–5 (see Figure 6) assessed the students’ familiarity with the images, the poem, and the folk song provided in the brochure.

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Figure 6.

Familiarity with the primary historical sources.

Question 2 pertains to the first image shown to the students, which was created using AI and Photoshop. As previously mentioned, the photograph used in the survey was deliberately constructed to depict the same scene as Gyzis’s painting, evoking an unconscious visual connection among the students. According to the results, the primary school children were divided on this question. The unconscious association of the photograph with Gyzis’s painting led half of the students to interpret the fake photograph as something they had seen before. In contrast, the other half demonstrated a more significant cognitive differentiation between the visual media of painting and the fabricated image, concluding that the photograph was a previously unseen phenomenon. Secondary school students, at a developmental stage where unconscious visual memory is more pronounced, showed a higher percentage of correct answers (62%), specifically 19 out of 31, indicating their ability to differentiate between the photograph and the painting.

Question 3 asked students if they were familiar with Gyzis’s painting. According to the responses, primary school students were familiar with the painting, with approximately 56% (i.e. 14 out of 25). In comparison, secondary school students showed familiarity with the painting, with approximately 62% (i.e. 19 out of 31). According to the curriculum, primary school students have not yet studied the Greek Revolution, while secondary school students study it at the end of the second grade. This suggests that the picture of the painting is widespread among students, even though it was not part of their curriculum at the time of the survey.

Most primary school students (68%), 17 out of 25, and almost all secondary school students (93.5%), 29 out of 31, stated that they did not know the poem by I. Polemis in question 4. Since the poem is not included in any history, Greek language, or literature textbooks, these results were to be expected.

Finally, in response to question 5, all primary school students (100%) and 84% (i.e. 26 out of 31) of secondary school students indicated familiarity with the folk song. These results were anticipated, as the song is one of the most well-known lullabies in Greece and has played a significant role in the myth of the secret school throughout history (Figure 7).

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Figure 7.

Doubt about the existence of “Secret School.”

Question 6 about the existence of the “Secret School” suggests that younger students are more likely to believe in this myth due to their cognitive development stage and tendency to trust authority figures, such as educators. The majority believe that the lessons were provided by priests and that the Ottomans forbade education in schools, replacing Greek schools with the “Secret School” during the Ottoman occupation.

Teaching in Secret School

The following questions examine students’ perceptions of educational practices during the Ottoman period, focusing on the role of the Secret Schools and their topics.

Table 1 and Figure 8 depict students’ reflections on the existence of the “Secret School” since the evidence was provided. More specifically, for secondary school students, the results show that most students agree that education during the Ottoman period was run by priests, with a mean score of 3.97 and a most common answer of 4. This suggests that most students agree, but the standard deviation of 1.08 shows some variation in individual opinions.

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Table 1.

Students’ reflections on the existence of the “Secret School” since the evidence was provided.

Secondary school	Sum	Mean	Mode	Median	Std. deviation
The lessons were given by priests/preachers	31	3.97	4	4	1.080
The lessons were held in churches	31	2.65	1	3	1.380
The Ottomans forbade education in Greek schools	31	3.55	5	4	1.501
The “Secret school ” replaced the Greek schools during the Ottoman period	31	3.90	5	4	1.076
Students were taught in the hidden school “Ancient Greek Literature”	31	3.35	4	4	1.375
Students were taught in the secret school “Mathematics”	31	3.06	3	3	1.063
Students were taught in the secret school “Ancient Greek and Roman history”	31	2.94	4	3	1.209
Primary school	Sum	Mean	Mode	Median	Std. deviation
The lessons were given by priests/preachers	25	4.28	5	5	1.208
The lessons were held in churches	25	3.2	4	4	1.500
The Ottomans forbade education in Greek schools	25	3	1	3	1.683
The “ secret school ” replaced the Greek schools during the Ottoman period	25	3.32	5	4	1.651
Students were taught in the hidden school “Ancient Greek Literature”	25	3.88	4	4	1.013
Students were taught in the secret school “Mathematics”	25	2.8	2	3	1.155
Students were taught in the secret school “Ancient Greek and Roman history”	25	2.96	1	3	1.670

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Figure 8.

Bar-chart with Mean Agreement (1–5 scale) on students’ reflections on the existence of the “Secret School” since the evidence was provided.

However, the belief that classes were held in churches is less widely accepted, with a mean of 2.65 (mode 1, median 3). The standard deviation of 1.38 indicates significant variation in responses, with some students strongly disagreeing with this idea while others are more in agreement.

Regarding the belief that the Ottomans banned education in Greek schools, students largely agreed, with a mean of 3.55 (mode 5, median 4). The standard deviation of 1.50 indicates some variation in opinions, but most students agree that the Ottomans enforced these bans. The notion that the Secret School replaced Greek schools during the Ottoman period also garners significant agreement. A mean of 3.90 (mode 5, median 4) suggests that most students acknowledge the existence of these schools, with a standard deviation of 1.08 reflecting a relatively narrow range of responses. This response aligns with expectations, as the term “secret” stems from the Turkish prohibition of education.

There is moderate agreement regarding the teaching of Ancient Greek Literature (mean 3.35), Mathematics (mean 3.06), and Ancient Greek and Roman History (mean 2.94) in Secret Schools. Some subjects are more popular than others. The responses for Ancient Greek Literature and History are the most disparate (standard deviations of 1.375 and 1.209, respectively), indicating that opinions about these subjects are more divided.

The results indicate similar trends for primary school students, although there are slight differences compared to secondary school students. Primary school students express strong agreement that the classes are taught by priests, with a mean of 4.28 (mode 5, median 5). The standard deviation of 1.21 reflects a high degree of homogeneity in their views, with slight variation among students. The idea that classes were held in churches is generally accepted, although opinions remain divided.

Students moderately agree with the Ottoman ban on education in Greek schools, with a mean of 3.00 (mode 1, median 3). The standard deviation of 1.68 indicates considerable response variation, suggesting that many students disagree with this claim.

Secret Schools are also considered a substitute for regular schools, with a mean of 3.32 (mode 5, median 4), as with secondary school students. The standard deviation of 1.65 indicates a significant range in responses, although most students recognize the concept of Secret Schools. Most students agreed that Ancient Greek Literature (mean 3.88) and Ancient Greek and Roman History (mean 2.96) were taught in Secret Schools, but to a lesser extent than Mathematics (mean 2.80).

Overall, the analysis results indicate that primary school students generally have more consistent views on secret schools and the role of priests and preachers in education during the Ottoman period. However, their opinions are more varied regarding the Ottomans’ ban on Greek education and the subjects taught. Most students appear to adhere to the myth of the Secret School and the notion that Greek education persisted during the Ottoman era. In contrast, there is a more significant variation in their opinions concerning the specific subjects taught in these schools. These response discrepancies may arise precisely because the Secret School is a myth; broad ambiguity surrounds the topic. Since students of this age are unfamiliar with the subjects taught in schools 200 years ago, their answers to questions about specific subjects in the Secret School tend to be primarily personal and intuitive.

Perceptions of image authenticity

The following questions (see Table 2 and Figure 9) explore students’ perceptions of AI-processed image authenticity and the factors they consider relevant for validating it. They focus mainly on institutional involvement, watermarks, and the image’s appearance.

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Table 2.

Students’ perceptions of AI-processed image authenticity.

Secondary school	Sum	Mean	Mode	Median	Std. deviation
The authenticity of the image is valid if the institution “Special Archives of Greece” is indicated	31	3.74	5	4	1.437
The authenticity of the image is valid if the watermark is present	31	3.81	5	4	1.223
The authenticity of the image is valid, because it looks worn by time	31	3.52	5	4	1.342
The authenticity of the image is valid, because it was supplied by the librarian	31	3.16	4	4	1.463
A watermarked image or photo can be created for malicious use	31	2.94	3	3	1.526
Primary school	Sum	Mean	Mode	Median	Std. deviation
The authenticity of the image is valid if the institution “Special Archives of Greece” is indicated	25	2.16	1	2	1.313
The authenticity of the image is valid if the watermark is present	25	2.04	1	2	1.060
The authenticity of the image is valid, because it looks worn by time	25	2.36	1	2	1.469
The authenticity of the image is valid, because it was supplied by the librarian	25	2.08	1	2	1.222
A watermarked image or photo can be created for malicious use	25	3.68	5	4	1.520

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Figure 9.

Bar-chart with Mean Agreement (1–5 scale) on students’ perceptions of AI-processed image authenticity.

More specifically, the results for secondary school students show strong agreement with the notion that the authenticity of an image is validated when the institution “Special Archives of Greece” is indicated. The mean of 3.74 (mode 5, median 4) suggests that most students agree with this statement, with a standard deviation of 1.437 indicating moderate variability in responses. This is because secondary school students are now familiar with the concept of an institution’s logo in a photograph.

The presence of a watermark is regarded as a strong indicator of authenticity, with a mean of 3.81 (mode 5, median 4). This demonstrates general agreement among students, although the standard deviation of 1.223 indicates some variation in their views. Similar to the previous findings regarding the logo, secondary school students recognize the importance and usability of a watermark.

The assertion that an image’s authenticity is valid due to its worn appearance also receives a relatively positive response, with a mean of 3.52 (mode 5, median 4). The standard deviation of 1.342 indicates moderate variability in students’ views, with some expressing more substantial agreement than others.

The mean of 3.16 (mode 4, median 4) suggests a more neutral stance, with moderate agreement regarding the validity of a librarian-provided image. The higher standard deviation (1.463) indicates a broader range of opinions on this factor. The results suggest that the children demonstrated a degree of critical thinking and did not perceive the librarian (or teacher) as an absolute authority figure.

Concerning the viewpoint that a watermarked image or photo can be misused, secondary school students appear to disagree, with a mean of 2.94 (mode 3, median 3). The standard deviation of 1.526 suggests a relatively broad range of opinions on this issue, with some students more inclined to agree with this possibility than others. In this context, we observe a moderately critical perception among students regarding fake news and misinformation. The significant number of students who believe that a photo cannot be created for malicious purposes reflects their initial lack of skepticism about the image’s authenticity.

On the other hand, primary school students show significantly lower agreement with the factors influencing an image’s authenticity than secondary school students. Regarding the idea that the authenticity of an image is valid if the institution “Special Archives of Greece” is mentioned, the mean is 2.16 (mode 1, median 2). The standard deviation of 1.313 indicates considerable variation, suggesting that many students in this group disagree with this idea. This result is likely because primary school students are not yet familiar with the role of digital image logos.

Similarly, the younger students are less accepting of the validity of an image confirmed by a watermark, with a mean of 2.04 (mode 1, median 2). The standard deviation of 1.060 indicates that the responses in this case are somewhat less varied but still reflect significant disagreement. It is worth noting that primary school students are not yet familiar with watermarks and their applications.

The notion that an image’s authenticity is valid due to its timeworn appearance also receives a relatively low mean score of 2.36 (mode 1, median 2), accompanied by a standard deviation of 1.469. This indicates that the younger age group does not readily accept this idea. Moreover, when evaluating the authenticity of an image provided by a librarian, primary school students also show skepticism, with a mean of 2.08 (mode 1, median 2).

However, primary school students strongly agree that a watermarked image or photo can be created for malicious use, with a mean of 3.68 (mode 5, median 4). The standard deviation of 1.520 reflects moderate variability, but overall, students in this group tend to believe in the potential for malicious use of watermarked images. As mentioned earlier, primary school students are generally unfamiliar with logos and watermarks. Consequently, they view the inclusion of these elements in photographs as unnecessary and, therefore, potentially malicious.

In conclusion, comparing the two age groups reveals significant differences in their perceptions of image authenticity. Secondary school students generally agree more with the factors that validate an image’s authenticity, such as mentioning the “Special Archives of Greece,” the presence of watermarks, and the appearance of wear over time. In contrast, primary school students express more skepticism and disagreement with these factors, particularly regarding the involvement of institutions and librarians. Nonetheless, both age groups express concern about the potential for malicious use of watermarked images, with the younger group demonstrating a stronger belief in this possibility.