The Sleep Paradox: A Retrospective Exploration into Sleeplessness and Aberrant Sleep Patterns to Gain Insights into Entrepreneurial Psychology and Behaviour

Abstract

The need for sleep has important implications for entrepreneurship. Researchers have come to understand that sleep insufficiency affects creativity, innovation, self-control and operational efficacy. Yet quality sleep often eludes an entrepreneur because of the demands from the business environment, fear of failure and job insecurity, among other things. Hence, a sleep paradox exists where aberrant sleep patterns or sleeplessness undermine success. However, aberrant sleep patterns and sleeplessness are a necessary part of successful entrepreneurial experiences. The current research used a qualitative design to understand how successful entrepreneurs retrospectively perceive aberrant sleep patterns or sleep restriction (i.e., sleeplessness); but, more importantly, how they implement coping mechanisms to overcome this paradox to achieve positive outcomes for their business. Successful entrepreneurs of the current research were seen to self-regulate their actions to address the vagaries of entrepreneurial experience. They manage aberrant sleep patterns or sleeplessness by taking steps to develop adaptative tools (i.e., coping mechanisms such as mental, physical and behavioural shortcuts) to aid decision-making in an uncertain business environment and to facilitate the sustainability of their entrepreneurial endeavours.

Keywords

Entrepreneur sleep sleeplessness qualitative phenomenology sleep paradox

The current research explores how successful entrepreneurs retrospectively perceive aberrant sleep patterns or sleep restriction; but more importantly, how they implement coping mechanisms to overcome the stress associated with sleeplessness to achieve positive outcomes for their endeavours. Entrepreneurship is vitally important to the United States national economy but is demanding and widely considered one of the most stressful of occupations (Chardon & Patel, 2015). The effects of job insecurity, work uncertainty, fear, the threat of loss and other factors suggest the entrepreneur’s mental well-being could be challenged, thus resulting in anxiety, sleeplessness and unrest (Stephan, 2018). The idea that an entrepreneur’s stress may be exacerbated by lack of sleep has been explored in nascent literature. Certainly, there are many times throughout the entrepreneurial journey that sleeplessness can diminish creativity, alertness and social competence (Gunia, 2018). Yet, successful entrepreneurs seemingly overcome this phenomenon to achieve positive organisational outcomes. Not researched is how the entrepreneurs understand the potential effects of diminished sleep and how they manage this phenomenon to achieve success in their endeavours.

Research Review

Entrepreneurship has been described as a new entry, one that innovates a product or service (Gartner, 1989). Among the research on entrepreneurship, several recent articles have taken a pejorative perspective. The research into entrepreneurship has been characterised in articles such as depression and entrepreneurial exit (Hessels et al., 2018); mania, risk and entrepreneurship: Overlapping personality traits (Johnson et al., 2018); Entrepreneurship addiction: Shedding light on the manifestation of the ‘dark side’ in work-behaviour patterns (Spivack & McKelvie, 2018) and so on. To further delineate some of the adverse concerns associated with entrepreneurial efforts, researchers have explored mental disorders in the entrepreneurship context (Wiklund et al., 2018), bipolar disorder (Jamison, 2005) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Antshel, 2018). Some researchers suggest that certain mental disorders, specifically those resulting in, or causing sleeplessness, affect entrepreneurial means; especially in relation to creativity, alertness and social competence (Gunia, 2018). The resultant research suggests a lack of self-regulation that spills over into work-life balance, individual performance and ultimately, organisational efficacy.

Lack of self-regulation has been proposed as the causative agent because sleep deprivation decreases an individuals’ self-control (Christian & Ellis, 2011). Self-control is a state of mental energy and strength that enables the regulation of the self by the self (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000). Total and partial sleep deprivation are known to have deleterious effects on human functioning (Christian & Ellis, 2011, p. 915). Sleep-deprived individuals perform poorly in tasks requiring innovation, the hallmark of entrepreneurship (Harrison & Horne, 1999). Specific to this research, sleep problems may impact alertness (Lim & Dinges, 2010), hamper creativity (Harrison & Horne, 1999) and diminish social competence (Anderson & Dickinson, 2010). Christian and Ellis (2011, p. 916) postulate that sleep deprivation reduces brain function such that it depletes self-regulatory resources, a phenomenon is known as self-regulatory resource depletion. This evidence caused Gunia (2018, p. 236) to question if sleep problems ‘hamper entrepreneurial means [and] does this result in a trap whereby many entrepreneurs are predisposed to underperform?’.

The need for sleep itself has important implications for modern business efficacy. In general, lack of adequate sleep is a social phenomenon across the United States (NIOSH, 2004). NIOSH (2004) estimates inadequate sleep costs the United States economy $150 billion per year. Yet, scant literature is available about how entrepreneurs cope with sleeplessness and aberrant sleep patterns to achieve success.

Why then, as Baron (2000, p. 15) questions, ‘are some entrepreneurs so much more successful than others in starting new companies?’. One suggestion is that the answer lies in the recursive nature of the mind–brain complex (Phan & Wright, 2018). The mind–brain complex may lead to mental and behavioural shortcuts taken by entrepreneurs, enabling them to solve complex problems.

In using heuristics, entrepreneurs rely on strategies from experience to derive judgments, save time, reduce effort and solve complex problems; oftentimes with incomplete information. Heuristics may help explain how successful entrepreneurs understand and devise strategies to avoid negative outcomes (Baron, 2000). Since the association between cognition and behaviour is at the core of entrepreneurship, sleep problems may undermine entrepreneurial efforts and impact the means by which entrepreneurial businesses become successful.

The current research leverages Gunia’s (2018) inquiry, about how do entrepreneurs understand chronic sleep problems as a part of the entrepreneurial journey? How do they consider sleeplessness in relation to entrepreneurial means (creativity, alertness and social competence) to obtain optimal organisational results? From a reflective perspective, what coping mechanisms do successful entrepreneurs adopt to affect beneficial performance and relationships? Finally, do successful entrepreneurs self-regulate their behaviour to achieve success?

In the current research, a qualitative method is used to inquire as to how entrepreneurs perceive chronic sleeplessness as it relates to their successful entrepreneurial endeavours. Moreover, the current research attempts to derive themes to better enlighten the research on sleeplessness, relative to entrepreneurial success. Further, the current research attempts to understand any coping mechanisms (i.e., exerted self-regulation measures), which may or may not involve heuristics that entrepreneurs implement to achieve optimal performance.

Method

This research was conducted using a phenomenological design. The design brings forth that analysis conducted on subjects to determine their reflective perspectives about instances of their past (Creswell, 2014). Among the reasons for using this method was the lack of research into how successful entrepreneurs understand the effects of sleeplessness and how they have learned to address these problems to affect beneficial outcomes.

The participants for this research were entrepreneurs who have profitably extended their business beyond five years of operation. They have been involved with it for this entire period of time; in its conception, start-up and operation. The businesses spanned a variety of disciplines and were all located in Ohio. The group was believed to represent a typical, sample study group.

Initially, 23 participants were selected, but upon pre-screening, 20 were determined to be representative of the participant group that fit the definition of entrepreneurship, longevity requirements, perceived sleeplessness problems and time commitments of the study design. The businesses spanned a variety of entrepreneurial ventures. Nine were service organisations, and eleven were involved in some aspect of manufacturing. The organisations included entrepreneurial ventures in consumer app development, fashion, medical device consultation, 3D printing, food development, social beneficence, healthcare, internet marketing, cloud-based recruitment, software creation, regulatory compliance, e-commerce, social media management, internet security, area security, data management, distance education, interior design, event planning and CNC component development.

Semi-structured interviews were used in the data collection process. Open-ended interview questions were prepared after a review of the literature. Next, voluntary interviews were conducted with the entrepreneurs at their offices or an off-site location, such as a café. To encourage responses, excerpts from Gunia’s (2018) article about sleep, relative to entrepreneurial means (only), were provided to offer a brief explanation of the study’s exploration. Participants were informed that their personal information would be kept confidential and the names of their organisation would not be used. Each participant gave his permission to record the discussion.

Conversations were consolidated into an electronic database. Participants’ expressions were analysed using both, categorical analysis and frequency analysis. A sentence was used as the basic unit of coding per Kuckartz (2014). A unique number was assigned to each sentence. The number was bipartite, where the initial sequence coded the interview name (i.e., organisational entity), and the second one referred to the sentence generated during the interview. Coding was done independently. Pilot-scale coding was carried out and corrections were made in the event unprocessed categories evolved.

Data Presentation

The research does not address ‘why’ or ‘how’ entrepreneurs understand and manage sleeplessness on their journey to success. Qualitative research was used to allow the entrepreneurs a voice in addressing these questions from a retrospective perspective. Various themes emerged during interviews with the participants. Themes were expressed in the interview data and represented personal retrospective assessments of how the entrepreneurs view sleep in terms of accomplishments, job performance and self-regulation in accomplishing their daily tasks. In general, the themes can be consolidated into the context of sleep pattern recognition and management, obsessiveness and management of available time in a workday.

Sleep Pattern Recognition and Management

The first theme that emerged was the idea of recognition of why aberrant sleep behaviours exist and subsequent management of the ensuing entrepreneurial work. This theme can be segregated into a passion for work, stimulation to get the job done, creativity and personal-professional life balance.

Passion for Work

Passion emerged as the primary sub-theme by most entrepreneurs. Excitement and desire for work appeared to be the foremost motive addressing the question of why aberrant sleep behaviours and sleeplessness occurred. Many suggested that when an innovative idea appealed to them on an emotional and visceral level, staying awake was unavoidable. As one entrepreneur put it:

When I latch onto an idea that will fit with my current business or something new that will enhance (the organisation), I simply cannot let it go. It gnaws at me from the inside. My brain begins to work and, at that moment, there is nothing more important to me than exploring this idea in detail. In this respect, sleep simply takes a back seat.

The thought inherent in statements such as the above indicates an almost dislocated and inescapable need to explore an idea beyond its cursory conception. Most of the entrepreneurs indicated that they ‘continuously roll the idea around in their minds, looking at it from different perspectives’. Other participants stated that they approached the problem from a mental, geometric perspective that explored the idea at different cognitive levels, considering different potential outcomes.

The entrepreneurs expressed the thought that they would stay up late at night or get up early in the morning to better understand the new idea. They would continuously take notes, transcribe ideas or conduct research. Most indicated this was because the mental stimulation would not allow sleep in any meaningful manner.

Stimulation to Get the Job Done

In tandem with the above, the entrepreneurs further discussed how new idea creation affected their energy and ambition. Virtually, all suggested that the stimulation for work led to a drive for continuous improvement and productivity. The motivation for continuous improvement and productivity drove them to disregard their own ideation of the importance of sleep, at least on a temporary basis. The motivation for organisational enhancement and new idea generation provided interesting insights as to why entrepreneurs will, at least on a temporary basis, avoid or delay quality sleep. As one stated:

It doesn’t really much matter where the idea comes from. It is the thought that something can improve the way we do things around here. It lights a fire in my belly. It consumes me. It can just be a more efficient way of doing a process that we already do or a new and effective way of producing better results. Either way, I feel stimulated to incorporate the idea into the organisation, post-haste.

Inherent in the idea presented was the aspect of inevitability. The entrepreneurs suggested that once they saw a link between a new idea and performance enhancement, they were driven to incorporate the new idea into their processes and organisation. Several ancillary statements emerged, such as not being able to ‘let the idea go’ or ‘relentless pursuit of ongoing performance enhancement’. They indicated that this type of stimulation made them pursue the idea to its ultimate conclusion and that sleep just seemed less important.

The entrepreneurs further indicated that they would stay close to those parts of the organisation where the idea would have its most importance. For example, if it was a product line issue, they would be on the front lines. If it was a service issue, they would be in front of the customers or with the service representatives. If this meant getting up earlier or staying late into work shifts, they felt compelled to be close to their organisational operatives. Integral to this idea was the dogged pursuit of optimal performance. Sleep or quality sleep seemed less important than organisational improvement.

Creativity

Most of the entrepreneurs indicated that they knew their creativity would be diminished in the absence of quality sleep. Most also indicated that the necessities of the business environment mandated creative solutions to maintain financial performance, organisational performance, operational efficiency, customer satisfaction, quality output, etc. Arriving at these solutions outweighed the need for quality sleep. As one of them put it:

I’ve often heard the old saying ‘you can catch up on your sleep when you are dead’ and laughed about it. Yet while I’m young and energetic, I feel the need to put my entire self into [the organisation]. I’ve come to know when I can be creative and when I cannot and just manage it as best as I can. That means, at times, giving up sleep and being as attentive to the organisation as possible. I know when I am most creative and when I’m too tired to be.

The entrepreneurs were generally aware of the impact of sleeplessness on creativity and understood why it impacted creativity. Many indicated that they took steps to address this. For example, many entrepreneurs stated they knew they were at their most creative, first thing in the morning and therefore, kept more mundane tasks for later in the day when they were tired. Others indicated that they used tools to foster creativity (i.e., brainstorming sessions, interactions with front-line employees, discussions with customers, etc.), thereby leveraging the creativity of others. In other words, they used tools to facilitate creativity at times when they were more receptive to it, thus addressing how the management of creativity was facilitated and how they better managed being tired.

Personal Life–Professional Life Balance

As evidenced by their reactions, all entrepreneurs were keenly aware that aberrant sleep patterns and sleeplessness factored into a quality balance between their personal and professional lives. Many indicated that they were not only aware of it but that it was an ongoing struggle that manifested itself in various forms, almost daily. As one entrepreneur put it:

It’s something I think about every day because I have a family with two little girls. I want that relationship to be a good one. I don’t want to miss out on recitals, sporting events or other things that are important to them. Equally, I know that I have to be available to the people in this organisation. Thank God for cell phones. I try to be there for both. But I put up borders in my mind when one cannot infringe upon the other. So if I’m at a work presentation, I don’t take calls from home. If I’m at a soccer game for one of my girls, I don’t take work calls.

Not only was it clear that the entrepreneurs understood the various conundrums associated with personal-professional life balance, but they were also acutely aware of the problems caused when an imbalance occurred. As one entrepreneur put it, ‘Yes, it just gets ugly. No one ends up being happy; someone always suffer’. So, they did their best to manage it proactively. Ineffectual management in this realm also led to inadequate sleep.

The entrepreneurs developed different tools for facilitating the ongoing balance between their personal professional lives. Many would adjust their schedules to get to the office early, so as not to disrupt the morning schedule of their children, but were there when the children came home. Others indicated that they would have to work late but would then get up early to be with their families in the morning. This was an ongoing trade-off in time demands. The fallout was a lack of quality sleep, which they believed they could just ‘catch up on later’. Whether the idea of ‘catching up’ on sleep was valid from a physiological perspective or not, did not occur to them.

The context of sleep pattern recognition and management did not go unnoticed by the entrepreneurs. It was clear that they recognised and were aware of aberrant patterns—that passion for work and stimulating ideas would impact their sleep behaviour, but this was necessary, they felt, to get the job done. Further, they took steps to manage aberrant sleep patterns or sleeplessness both, for creativity, as well as work life-family life balance.

Obsessiveness

Obsessiveness was the second theme that led to chronic aberrant sleep behaviour and sleeplessness. A discussion of how the entrepreneur managed obsessiveness relative to a lack of sleep or aberrant sleep patterns enlightened a common understanding of this phenomenon. This theme was segregated into (a) drive for perfection; (b) fear; (c) intrinsic motivation.

Drive for Perfection

This appeared to be a primary motivation in addressing the question of why aberrant sleep behaviour and sleeplessness occur. Most suggested that the pursuit of perfection was necessary for optimal organisational performance as well as providing a sense of emotional fulfilment. As one entrepreneur put it:

My demons don’t sleep. If my organisation is having a financial challenge, I obsess over it until it is fixed. If it is having a production problem, I drive for the solution. If there is a service problem, I am physically present until it is rectified. I simply can’t sleep until a resolution develops, so why try? Then, and only then, can I get good sleep.

Most believed that a drive for perfection was necessary on a daily basis for all aspects of the organisation. Entrepreneurs used statements like: ‘If I don’t address these problems immediately, who would?’ and ‘It is better to implement systems to avoid problems proactively than retroactively’. The suggestion was that the entrepreneurs were obsessive about perfecting practices and procedures that would alert them to issues, challenges and problems so as to stave off the myriad concerns of an entrepreneurial endeavour. They also understood that the better the systems were, the better they were able to sleep at night and characterised the event as a drive for perfection.

The entrepreneurs went on to say that this drive for perfection led to emotional fulfilment. Until they achieved that level of fulfilment, sleep was hindered. This suggested that they had learned that quality sleep was not possible in the shadow of a challenge or problem which would threaten the performance of the organisation until a suitable solution was found. This imparted knowledge as to why they need for perfection resulted in sleeplessness or aberrant sleep behaviour.

Fear

Consistent with the above, the entrepreneurs surfaced the idea of fear in relation to obsessiveness. Fear was credited with aberrant sleep behaviour and sleeplessness. All of them indicated that at one time or another, fear of some organisational challenge led to sleeplessness or aberrant sleep patterns. As one entrepreneur stated:

It seems like there’s always something that will strike fear into the heart of us entrepreneurs. Competitive challenges, database threats, hijacking quality employees, stealing ideas, liability issues and things like that are persistent concerns. Whether real or imagined, these things weigh on my mind quite often. Sleep comes hard those days. And sometimes, it just doesn’t seem to want to come.

The entrepreneurs stated that many structural policies and procedures were enacted to counteract competitive challenges, database threats, retaining quality employees, etc. Yet, all of them believed that some level of addressing fear was necessary for organisational cohesiveness, remediating challenges and staving off adverse liabilities. This showed how they came to manage fear through obsessive attention to detail necessary for organisational survival, even at the expense of sleep.

The problems of operating an entrepreneurial business are many. In the modern-day scenario, these problems lead to a fear of failure, which, in turn, lead to concerns over how to deal with the issues. Dealing with these issues lead to sleeplessness and aberrant sleep behaviour patterns.

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation arose as a primary sub-theme for obsessiveness. The entrepreneurs indicated that their motivation to engage with their organisation came from the fact that it was internally satisfying. Due to that, they obsessed over decision-making, policies and procedures, performance and various other aspects of the organisation. Admittedly, it was unusual for them to lose sleep or suffer inferior sleep, as a result. As one entrepreneur noted:

There simply is nothing better than solving a problem and implementing that solution back into the organisation. You can watch it happen. Things you create within the organisation stop future problems from resurfacing. You think ‘I did that. I made that work.’ That is deeply fulfilling to me. I am continually motivated to effect change. It puts me on an emotional high and…I find it hard to sleep for a while.

Statements like these show how the entrepreneurs obsessed with solving problems in order to attain some level of intrinsic self-fulfilment. Similar statements like, ‘Because of my obsessiveness, I believe I can do almost anything to keep this organisation at peak performance’ and ‘My obsessive actions have saved this organisation on more than one occasion’, showed this perspective. These types of statements further fortified the construct of why entrepreneurs obsessed; it provided them with an internal sense of satisfaction.

From the statements made, this internal sense of satisfaction led to the entrepreneurs’ sense of self-identification with the organisation. Their successful implementation of corrective actions within the organisation fortified their belief in themselves in relation to the organisation. At times, this resulted in a euphoria that, according to them, inhibited the sleep processes. Hence, they were motivated to address the countless challenges because it led to self-gratification, and if done successfully, was emotionally fulfilling, thus leading to transient sleep anomalies.

The context of obsessiveness did not go unnoticed by the entrepreneurs. Further, they understood that obsessiveness was fuelled by a drive for perfection, fear and intrinsic motivation. They saw obsessiveness as a necessary behaviour for organisational success and self-fulfilment.

Management of Available Time

The third theme that emerged was that time management was vital to the success of an organisation. Occasions, management of the available time was at odds with quality sleep but was generally seen as necessary. The inordinate demands of work usurped the time allocated for sleep because of the need for ongoing decision-making and multitasking.

Decision-making

All entrepreneurs were keenly aware that quality decision-making could be disrupted by aberrant sleep patterns and sleeplessness. Yet, decision-making took time to explore the potential outcomes. Many were concerned that lack of sleep would manifest itself in a failed decision that would jeopardise the organisation. As one entrepreneur said:

I have to make too many decisions on any given day. I am aware that my best decisions come midday or in the morning when I feel rested and more at ease. However, decisions must be made at all times, but I pay particular attention to those decisions I’ve made later in the day. I double-check and triple-check the things I do. I’ve learned to do this over the years because I am a morning person.

The entrepreneurs understood their role in the ongoing success of the venture. As an example of this role-based approach, some entrepreneurs suggested:

Leadership is about decision-making. I believe it’s my primary role, and I have to do it whether I’m tired or not; or yes, I try to delegate so I don’t get overly exhausted, but there are just some decisions that have to be made by me at this juncture of my company’s evolution.

It was apparent that these entrepreneurs understood why time management, quality sleep and leadership roles were important factors for quality decision-making. It was equally apparent that they understood why sleeplessness or aberrant sleep patterns resulted in deleterious decisions for the organisation.

The entrepreneurs used different tools for balancing the time demands of running their organisations and achieving quality sleep, resulting in good-quality decisions. They all suggested various means for controlling the vagaries of business and delegating decision-making to lower levels of the organisation. As a result, policies were developed, procedures erected and systems allocated towards providing checks and balances, monitoring and communicating to support the organisation’s performance. The entrepreneurs believed they could direct systems to facilitate control over the vagaries of business and thereby decrease the time needed for decision-making demands.

Multitasking

The idea of multitasking emerged as another sub-theme by most of the entrepreneurs vis-à-vis time management. The necessity of performing multiple tasks at one time emerged as a primary requirement to address the question of why aberrant sleep behaviours and sleeplessness occurred. Many suggested that multitasking led to acute mental fatigue. As one entrepreneur put it:

Because of the online nature of our business, there are many times I must assist with IT issues, sales and marketing tasks and performance concerns. Sometimes, all of these problems arise at the same time. One solution may address, for example, the sales and marketing issues but fail miserably for the performance concerns. This type of across-the-board problem-solving takes its toll. There are times I just have to go into my office, close the door, close my eyes and shut out the rest of the world. It’s mentally draining.

Most entrepreneurs developed personalised methods to help them manage, not the multitasking process, but the end result, which was mental fatigue. Statements such as ‘I know when I need to just get away from the office’ or ‘I manage the stress with napping, exercise, meditation or anything that can take my mind off the work environment; even if it’s only temporary’; emerged from the discussions. Most indicated that multitasking led to unsuitable mental stimulation which hindered quality sleep in any meaningful manner.

Irrespective of the efficacy of multitasking, the entrepreneurs suggested that multitasking was a necessary requirement because of the fast-paced nature of entrepreneurial work. Competition, globalism, e-commerce and other modern-day business factors contributed to their belief that multitasking was a necessary requirement. Moreover, they universally suggested that multitasking was mentally exhausting and was a contributing factor to sleeplessness and aberrant sleep behaviour. Each had some means of addressing the associated mental fatigue that best suited their individual situation.

Enabling the Role

Most of the entrepreneurs indicated that avoiding sleep was, at times, necessary for their role in an entrepreneurial venture. Specifically, spending excessive amounts of time with the nascent organisation was a necessity and vital to how they perceived their role in it. As one entrepreneur stated:

This organisation would not be here had I not spent 14- to 16-hour days in the beginning. I knew it would be difficult and that failure rates were high, so I worked hard to make sure my company would be around, long into the future. I continue to do this when needed, even to this day.

Moreover, most believed the idea of excessive work, vis-à-vis their role as an entrepreneur was stereotypical of the experience. Most entrepreneurs indicated that the necessities of the new venture creation process mandated excessive work, which led to sleeplessness. As one of them put it:

It is the role of the entrepreneur—it is what we do—we outwork the rest. It is a choice, but it comes with the territory. I go to work, and it is dark, and I know everyone else is still sleeping. I get more hours of work done than they do, and that is why we are so successful. I take great pride in that. I work when others rest, but it is needed if you want the company to thrive and be successful.

The entrepreneurs generally saw aberrant sleep patterns or inadequate sleep, almost as a badge of honour or a rite of passage, even though they understood the potential impacts on productivity. Most of them believed that these patterns or inadequate sleep were a conscious choice as a part of their role. As one said:

Most of the time, I’m here early and leave late. First in, last out; that is my call. I am the only one who sets the alarm in the morning or walks out the door at night. Actually, that is one of the things I enjoy about being an entrepreneur and a small business owner.

Many indicated that they enjoyed the control over time spent as an entrepreneur. As one put it, ‘I take pride in the control over the usage of my time over other jobs where someone else dictates the work hours’. At least in part, sleeplessness or aberrant sleep patterns was a choice, not a trait. Each saw his role differently. All vacillated about the ideation of their role, but revelled in the idea of self-governance when it came to their conception of an entrepreneur.

The entrepreneurs of this study understood the context of managing the available time and how mismanagement led to sleeplessness and aberrant sleep patterns. Many expressed the idea that decision-making could be affected and multitasking was necessary but exerted intense mental fatigue, thus propagating the cycle of sleeplessness and adverse sleep patterns. The deleterious effects of sleeplessness were moderated by pride in their role and by the personal freedom to choose how their time was spent, even if the demand was excessive. They understood the implications of entrepreneurship, developed structural remedies (policies, procedures, etc.) and implemented self-management techniques that they believed facilitated adequate sleep patterns and restfulness.

Discussion

The adverse effects of sleeplessness and insufficient quality sleep have been researched relative to entrepreneurial efficacy (Christian & Ellis, 2011; Gunia, 2018). It is clear that sleep plays an important role in the entrepreneurial process, as well as in the ultimate success of the entrepreneurial venture. Gunia (2018) characterised an idea he termed the sleep trap where ‘Despite facilitating the desire to become an entrepreneur, sleep problems may undermine an entrepreneur’s ability to thrive as an entrepreneur’ (Gunia, 2018, p. 228). Based on the proviso that sleep problems may undermine an entrepreneur’s ability to thrive, the current research explored the means by which entrepreneurs retrospectively understood that aberrant sleep patterns exist, why they exist and how they managed the undesirable effects of lack of or insufficient sleep.

Sleep Pattern Recognition and Management

It is clear that the entrepreneurs recognised and were aware of their own aberrant sleep patterns. Further, the data suggests they modified their behaviour in many ways in regard to sleep, to achieve success in their endeavour. In many instances, the passion for work drove them to extremes that resulted in aberrant sleep patterns and sleeplessness. Most suggested that it was necessary to delay sleep to remain engaged in an idea, decision or problem-solving. Repeatedly, they suggested that the idea, decision, or problem-solving stimulated a desire to be engaged with their organisation, at that point in time, even at the expense of adequate sleep. It is also important to note that many of them understood the detrimental effects of inadequate sleep in regard to creativity. Yet, they modified their behaviour to address the need to be creative. For example, many of the entrepreneurs put off actions requiring creativity until earlier in the day when they were better rested. Similar behaviours, such as boundary setting, were used to manage the personal–professional life balance issues. In general, they indicated that they would rather inconvenience themselves than disrupt their families. Many saw this as a necessary form of self-sacrifice.

Obsessiveness

The entrepreneurs understood that their own obsessiveness led to aberrant sleep patterns and sleeplessness, yet saw it as a necessity to achieve organisational success. Virtually all of them indicated that the drive for perfection overshadowed the need for sleep. Further, they indicated that the detrimental effects of sleeplessness could be overcome by obsessive attention to detail. Moreover, fear of failure was often mentioned relative to the drive for perfection. While to some, this may seem to be a contradiction, for the entrepreneurs, the drive for perfection and overcoming fear resulted in a sense of self-gratification with the success of the organisation. Fighting through the effects of inadequate sleep to solve problems and challenges was not unexpected when they started their entrepreneurial endeavour, nor was it perceived as a hindrance when it came into being. Hence, overcoming the myriad problems associated with an entrepreneurial endeavour and living through sleepless nights and aberrant sleep patterns precipitated a latent emotional fulfilment for the entrepreneur.

Management of Available Time

Admittedly, the entrepreneurs understood the idea that efficient use of time would be affected by aberrant sleep patterns and sleeplessness. They understood that their leadership roles required decision-making and that good-quality decisions relied, in part, on adequate sleep. Hence, they adjusted their schedule and delegated responsibilities as a means of facilitating efficacious decision-making. The context of multitasking arose often. Most indicated that multitasking led to an unsuitable mental stimulation that inhibited quality sleep and equally, as many suggested, was a necessary requirement because of competition and the fast-paced nature of their work. While this was a contributing factor to aberrant sleep behaviour and sleeplessness, they perceived multitasking as an expectation, a necessity and an unavoidable and ongoing part of the entrepreneurial journey. Moreover, it was apparent that they understood the idea of aberrant sleep patterns and sleeplessness to be a part of the typical role of an entrepreneur. In fact, many went on to say that it was stereotypical of the entrepreneurial experience.

Adaptative Tools

Christian and Ellis (2011) and Gunia (2018) documented the many adverse effects of sleeplessness and insufficient sleep quality as it relates to the ultimate success of the entrepreneurial venture. Hence, a sleep paradox seems to exist whereby aberrant sleep patterns or sleeplessness undermine success, but sleep patterns and sleeplessness are a necessity for a successful venture. It was Simon (1989) who studied individuals as problem-solvers. Specifically, he questioned how humans make decisions under conditions of uncertainty. As a result, it was understood that heuristics could lead to fast, frugal and accurate decisions in uncertain environments (Gigerenzer et al., 2011). It is apparent from the current research that entrepreneurs engaged in various physical, mental and behavioural tools to overcome the deleterious effects of inadequate sleep or sleeplessness. The participants of this study self-regulated their behaviour to facilitate success in light of adverse quality sleep. They understood that they were mentally limited in their ability to manage all the daily requirements of the venture (i.e., make rational decisions, multitask and so on) in the absence of quality sleep. They developed personalised heuristic tools and relied on mental, physical and behavioural shortcuts to help them deal with the vagaries, intricacies and demands of the modern-day business environment.

The entrepreneurs indicated the physical tools were many and varied. Many used traditional tools. As one stated, ‘I live in mortal fear of losing my scheduler; it is my brain’ or the oft-stated ‘Thank God for sticky notes, I place them everywhere’. Physical schedulers such as Day Timers™, daily calendars and Google Calendars were also useful tools. This suggested that more traditional tools such as utilising notes pads, notes on written calendars, Post-It™ notes and other mnemonic devices and prompts were common physical tools for reminding them of important necessities. Others used more modern tools. As one entrepreneur said, ‘My cell phone is my other executive assistant’; and as another put it, ‘Alexa keeps me in check and reminds me when I would normally forget’. This suggested that common, modern-day electronic devices such as electronic calendar notifications, phone alerts, virtual assistants, electronic alarms and reminders and the like were common physical tools for reminding the entrepreneur of important necessities. Others relied on self-texting and self-messaging. Voice recording and voice notes on cell phones were likewise common. While there were physical tools used for checks and balances, others used proactive physical tools to address sleeplessness, such as intermittent napping or meditating, as a means of achieving some modicum of rest.

The entrepreneurs also indicated that mental tools were employed to overcome the effects of inadequate sleep or sleeplessness. Many would constantly remind themselves of the fears associated with failure. Rhetorical questions such as ‘How would I be seen by colleagues if this all came crashing down’ or ‘Could I work for someone else, now that I am used to being an entrepreneur?’ Further, sleeplessness or inadequate sleep was seen as a role expectation in statements like, ‘Sure I knew this would be exhausting going into it. It is legendary; that’s what entrepreneurs do’.

Yet, the ideation of sleeplessness or inadequate sleep led to role fulfilment and was used as a tool to push towards success. In fact, it became a source of pride as opposed to a negative characteristic of the entrepreneurial journey. Some made statements like, ‘We have to outwork the rest, it is the nature of the beast’ and ‘When I do get good sleep, I wake up knowing I’ve achieved something special that most people couldn’t or wouldn’t dare to even try’. Further, recurrent focusing on finding solutions and multitasking resulted in obsessiveness that the entrepreneurs used to drive themselves towards success and as a mental tool to remind themselves of the perceived unimportance of sleep.

The entrepreneurs likewise believed that implementing various behavioural tools was necessary to facilitate organisational success and overcome the negative effects of inadequate sleep or sleeplessness. They made statements like, ‘If I want to get a restful night, I solve all of the day’s problems before going home’ and ‘I try to make sure all of my employees are enabled to make decisions in my absence’. To this end, many entrepreneurs employed online dashboard communication (i.e., texting, messaging, computer software programs, etc.) with subordinates and associates. Further, delegation with trusted employees arose early and often as a behavioural tool to rely on others for the multitude of decisions that need to be made. Behavioural tools took on additional importance when considering time management. As one entrepreneur put it, ‘We all have better and worse times of the day. The skill is in knowing when you are at your best and when you are at your worst, and adjusting’. For example, they would allocate certain activities to certain times of the day such that creative endeavours would be conducted when they were most rested, while more mundane tasks such as meetings, reviews and report writing were postponed, rescheduled or interspersed throughout different parts of the day.

It was apparent from the current research that entrepreneurs engaged in various physical, mental and behavioural tools to overcome the deleterious effects of inadequate sleep or sleeplessness. This was a means of self-regulation, self-control or self-leadership. With the understanding that sleep problems may undermine one’s ability to achieve success, the current research shows how successful entrepreneurs erected coping mechanisms to attain organisational sustainability.

Conclusion

Entrepreneurship is demanding. The demands are exacerbated by lack of sleep or sleeplessness. Gunia (2018) documented the effect of sleeplessness on creativity, alertness and social competence. The results of these adversities, while true, are incomplete when considering the behaviour of successful entrepreneurs who overcame these demands by instituting self-regulating behaviours.

These successful entrepreneurs expected the paradox of sleeplessness and aberrant sleep patterns when deciding to engage in entrepreneurship. This expectation suggested foreknowledge and awareness of this complexity. Moreover, they realised they must take steps to manage this phenomenon in advance. Further, they self-regulate their behaviour to manage sleeplessness and aberrant sleep patterns.

The entrepreneurs perceived sleeplessness and aberrant sleep patterns as an expectation a part of role fulfilment. They then leveraged this idea for intrinsic motivation and stimulation to achieve a successful venture. Fear and the drive for perfection led to motivation often identified as obsessiveness. Intrinsic motivation and stimulation to get the job done were seen as a passion for entrepreneurial work. Along the way, they erected a means to thwart the effects of sleeplessness or inadequate sleep to facilitate creativity and professional–personal life balance. A result of these conditions mandated that they managed the available time adequately for decision-making and multitasking to enable their role as successful entrepreneurs.

To be successful, the entrepreneurs adapted themselves to the conditions of their work environment and entrepreneurial journey. Hence, they were intentionally implementing a range of sub-skills that provided a foundation for success in the entrepreneurial endeavour. It became evident that successful entrepreneurs self-regulated and self-managed to prescribe their actions and to address the demands of the entrepreneurial process.

The current research explored how successful entrepreneurs perceive sleep deprivation or sleeplessness as well as how they implemented coping mechanisms to overcome the harmful effects. A sleep paradox exists where aberrant sleep patterns or sleeplessness undermine success but are also a necessary part of a successful venture. The successful entrepreneurs of the current research developed adaptative tools (i.e., coping mechanisms such as mental, physical and behavioural shortcuts) to aid their organisations in an uncertain business environment to facilitate the sustainability of their endeavour.

Future Directions and Limitations

The theoretical implications for the current research may hold important directions for entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship education. By uncovering the rationale as to how entrepreneurs cope with problems caused by sleeplessness, entrepreneurs can weigh the costs and benefits that such problems may import into their organisational setting. Moreover, defining the behaviour and actions will be beneficial to the organisation. Further, by calling attention to the impact of sleep problems on entrepreneurial efficacy, educators will be enlightened as to new avenues of exploration.

The current research demonstrates that while sleeplessness and aberrant sleep behaviours exist, it is an abstraction that is understood to be a part of the entrepreneurial process, at least on the part of the entrepreneurs themselves. Also, those successful entrepreneurs employ various behaviours to address this abstraction. In this, they are self-regulating their behaviour. Future research could expound upon individual behavioural, mental and physical tools used by successful entrepreneurs vis-à-vis unsuccessful entrepreneurs. Further, it would be interesting to see if the same skills were repetitive in serial entrepreneurs. More research into the self-regulation mechanisms would likewise be enlightening.

The current research may provide salient information for STEM education and may contribute to entrepreneurship education. Therefore, an additional line of research may focus on the entrepreneurial mind. Duening (2010) posits that the entrepreneurial mind allows for the development of sub-skills needed to be successful. He went on to suggest that this has implications for entrepreneurship education. Most research in this area is 15 years old, and is ripe fodder for additional research, specifically into self-regulation.

The findings, themes and meanings provide insight into the phenomenon of sleeplessness and aberrant sleep patterns as a part of the lived experience of an entrepreneur. The nature of phenomenological research is limited. Generalising the findings across populations other than entrepreneurs or outside the identified geographic area should not occur without additional research. The findings, themes and meanings were limited to the entrepreneurial population in Ohio in the Midwestern United States, at this point. Additional research would be necessary to determine if this information would be consistent with other similar entrepreneurial populations outside of this area.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

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