The Concept of Mind in Health Disease and Perfection with Understanding of Brain in Ayurveda and Darshanas—A Review

Introduction

Advancements in science and technology have brought about unprecedented lifestyle changes across the globe, which have also resulted in newer health challenges. Although the threat of physical diseases remains relevant, what is overwhelming is the rise of mental health issues across all cultures and spectrum of populations. It is estimated that mental health issues account for 418 million disability-associated life years globally (16% of global DALYs) compared to earlier estimates in 2019, with an economic loss of more than $5 trillion or 4%–8% of the gross domestic product (GDP) of countries spent to address them. This constitutes a three-fold rise. ¹ The WHO estimates 1 in 8 people, or 970 million people globally, are living with a mental health issue, with anxiety and depression being the commonest in 2019. Post-COVID, there was a 26%–28% increase in these disorders globally, ² understanding of the human mind, both in health and diseases, while advancing in technology, still remains an enigmatic area.

In this scenario, Indian knowledge systems like ayurveda, Sankhya-Yoga and Vedanta darshanas have an invaluable role to contribute from their wisdom spanning many millennia. The global interest in yoga and ayurveda and their effectiveness in many psycho-somatic conditions also calls for a closer study of these scriptures. An attempt is made here to look very minutely at these sources, along with the relevant commentaries, to enhance the understanding of the modern scientist and to encourage them to explore these sources further.

Personality Types

Vagbhata’s Classification (Sha. 5/19–21 and 8/17) ¹⁸

Vagbhata described the different characteristics arising from each maha guna as follows:

Charakas and Sushrutha’s Classification of Manasika Prakrutis (Sha. 4/36–40; Sha. 4/81–97)^{4, 11}

Charaka Samhita and Sushrutha Samhitha also classified the mind sets based on satvika, rajasika and tamasika guna predominance of individuals. Charaka clarifies that although due to variations of the three gunas, the number of manasika prakrutis can be innumerable, but for the sake of easy understanding or as examples, they are limited to seven satvika, six rajasika and three tamasika prakrutis. These are based on samskaras and indicate the scale of spiritual evolution in a person.

Satvika prakruti are seven in number and include brahma, rishi, indra, yama, varuna, kubera and gandharva prakrutis, placed from the highest to the lowest order of purity and evolution, with brahma being athi shuddha (purest) and most evolved.

Brahma: A person with brahma prakruti has purity, shows love for truth, is self-controlled, shares knowledge and wisdom, is eloquent and capable of refuting counter arguments, has good retentive memory, is free from lust and greed and treats all human beings equally.

Arsha: The person with mental faculty of a rishi shows devotion to sacred rituals, study, sacred vows, oblations, celibacy or spirituality, is committed to care of guests, is free from ego, likes, dislikes, anger and others, is intelligent and eloquent with good retentive memory. Sushrutha adds commitment to japa, brahmacharya, adhyayana and others.

Aindra: The person with indra prakruti demonstrates lordship, authoritative speech, performance of sacred rituals, bravery, strength, freedom from impure or klesha-causing acts, far-sightedness and is interested in dharma, artha, kama and others.

Yamya: The persons with yama prakruti show rigid observance of the propriety of actions or strict observance of rules and regulations, initiation of actions in time, non-violability, agility, good memory, obtain aishwarya and are free from likes, dislikes, moha or delusion and envy. Sushrutha describes them as having appropriate actions (prapta/yukta kari), strong-willed (dridha uthana/arambha), fearless (nirbhaya), having purity and a good memory.

Varuna: People with varuna prakruti show bravery, patience, purity, dislike for impurity, observance of religious rites, show fondness for aquatic sports, avoid mean or painful acts, show appropriate anger and benevolence. Sushrutha describes them as having ‘pingala’ or yellowish-brown iris or eyes, reddish brown or ‘kapila’ hair and preferring cool places and having a pleasing speech.

Kaubera: Kaubera is characterised by possession of a station or residence of comfort, honour, luxuries, attendants, constant liking for dharma, artha, kama, pure, comfortable travel or recreation, visible anger, benevolence and others. Sushrutha describes them as moderate (madhyastha), accumulating knowledge and wealth (arthasya agama sanchayau) and having great reproductive capacity (maha prasava shakti).

Gandharva: People with gandharva prakruti show fondness for dancing, singing, music, poetry, stories, epics, show liking for scents, garlands, cosmetics, clothes, company of women and others and are free from envy. Sushrutha describes them as loving perfumes and garlands (gandha malya priyatvam), music and dance and a love for travelling (vihara sheela). 2.

Rajasika prakrutis (with rosha amsa or endowed with anger or fury)

The mental tendencies of people with rajasika prakruti are classified into six types—asura, rakshasa, paisacha, sarpa, praita and sakuna.

Asura: Asura is characterised by bravery, cruelty, enviousness, lordship, projecting themselves falsely, having a terrifying appearance, being merciless and self-praise. Sushrutha adds extreme anger (chandam) to the list (narcissistic).

Rakshasa: Rakshasa demonstrates intolerance, constant anger, attacks at weak moments or when lonely (ekanta grahita), cruelty, gluttony, fondness for non-vegetarian food, excessive sleep and exertion and enviousness/jealousy. Sushrutha also adds dharma bahyata and excessive tamas or ignorance.

Paishacha: Paishacha shows gluttonous habits, fondness for women and sex, liking for staying with women in a lonely place, unclean habits, dislike for cleanliness, cowardliness, love to terrorise others, perverted habits and diet. Sushrutha cites eating of uchhista or consumed foods, fondness for brave acts (sahasa priyata) and lack of social inhibitions (nairlajjam).

Sarpa (snake-like): They are described as brave when angered and cowardly when not angry, thereby exhibiting a dual personality. They show sharp reactions, excessive indolence, excessive walking, talking, eating and excessive roaming, but with a fearful disposition. Sushrutha adds that they are deceptive (mayanvitam) and restless (chapala) in tendencies and actions.

Preta: They have excessive desire for food, excessively sorrowful attitude in character and past times, enviousness, actions without discrimination, excessive greediness and inaction. Sushrutha adds non-parting (adataram).

Sakuna (eagle/kite): They are excessively passionate/sexual, have excessive and constant food and activities, show unsteadiness or constant roaming, ruthlessness and non-acquisitiveness. 3.

Tamasika prakrutis (with moha amsa or endowed with erroneous understanding)

Tamasika prakrutis are of three types. They are pashava, mastya and vanaspatya.

Pashava (animalistic): Pashava is identified by refusing as a habit, disinterest in proper appearance, lack of intelligence, hateful conduct and food habits and excessive sexual indulgence and sleep.

Matsya (fish-like): Matsyas show cowardice, lack of intelligence, greediness for food, unsteadiness, constant sexual desire, constant anger, constant movement and fondness for water.

Vanaspatya (tree-like): Vanaspatya is depicted as indolence, showing interest only in food and a deficiency of all intellectual faculties. Sushrutha adds being constantly situated at the same place (eka sthana rati) and exclusion from all dharma, artha and kama.

Manasika Bhavas Based on Sharirika Prakruti (VI. 8/96–99; Sha. 4/64–76 and Sha. 3/85–103)^{4, 10, 11, 22}

Ayurveda describes the relationship between the body and mind as that of adhara (supporter or container) and adheya (supported or contained), respectively. Giving the analogy of a vessel and water, it explains their mutual interdependence as follows. A hot or cold vessel automatically turns normal water contained in it hot or cold, respectively; conversely, adding hot or cold water to a normal vessel also turns the vessel hot or cold. Hence, doshas of the body (vata, pitta and kapha) affect the mind (systemic causes of mental illnesses), and doshas of mind affect the body (psycho-somatic disorders). In a similar fashion, the sharirika prakruti or body constitution also affects the mental attributes depending on the predominant dosha in the body. Sharirika prakruti of a person, in turn, is determined by an inherent balance of tridoshas at conception.

Grossly, the kapha prakruti due to prithvi and ap dominance has satvika and tamasika qualities, the pitta prakruti due to agni dominance has satvika and rajasika attributes, and vata prakruti due to vayu dominance has rajasika attributes.

Vata prakruti: A person with a predominant vata constitution is stress-prone, becomes anxious or cries easily. They are fearful by nature and get angry easily. They are impulsive or very quick in making decisions, which they often regret later. They are quick to make and break friendships and to form opinions. They are prone to anxiety or depression frequently. They grasp things quickly but forget easily. They tend to dislike routine and love physical activity for recreation. Their general attitude is to avoid stressful situations, are talkative and love to talk about a lot of topics. They find it hard to meditate and spirituality does not appeal to them. Money is spent frivolously. They like the attitude of rabbits, goats, dogs, mice, crows and vultures and even tend to imitate them.

Pitta prakruti: A person with predominant pitta is easily angered, irritable and frequently critical but courageous. The anger, though easily aroused, is also easily pacified. They are competitive and aggressive by nature, but intelligent and logical. They have good grasping power and memory. They are passionate in relationships and are forceful but eloquent in their demeanour. They have strong opinions and show love for competitive sports. They love technology and use it intelligently. They spend money only on specific things of value. They are capable of doing intense meditation, but of short duration, and show interest in spirituality for intellectual interest only. They like the attitude of serpents, tigers, cats and bears and may tend to be similar to them in actions.

Kapha prakruti: A person with kapha prakruti is calm, stable and pleasant even under stress; they are rarely angry but difficult to pacify once angered. They are balanced, courageous, but discreet. They are slow in decision-making but thoughtful and spiritual by nature. They are mostly happy and at peace. They are slow to form relationships but have long-term, stable relations once formed. Their opinions are difficult to change easily, like routines and love leisurely activities. They are slow to grasp but have a very long memory. They are known to be mild, balanced and thoughtful people. They save money easily but can donate large amounts if convinced. They have the capacity to meditate for long periods, and spirituality really appeals to them if there is truth. They like the attitude of lions, elephants, cows, bulls and swans and tend to resemble them in attitudes.

Types of Minds (Chitta-Bhumis) Based on Yoga Darshana

In the yoga sutras (pada 1/1–2, Vyasa Bhasya),^7–9 Acharya Patanjali defines yoga as achieving the resting quiescence (samadhi) of the mind. He also describes five types of chitha bhumis (types of minds), which are formed due to the samskaras formed from previous lives, and each chitta bhumi indicates the most natural and predominant state of that particular mind. They are five in number.

Kshiptam (disturbed or thrown): It is described as a state of mind admixed with rajas and tamas with attraction towards aishwarya (opulence) and vishayas (sense objects of pleasure).

Mudham (numbed or stupefied): A type in which mind is afflicted with tamas and is therefore attracted to adharma, ajnana (ignorance), avairagya (attachments) and anaishwarya (poverty).

Vikshiptam (distracted but steady): A type characterised by profoundly diminished (praksheena) tamas and having only a small part of rajas. This makes the person pursue (para) dharma (righteousness), jnana (knowledge of yoga), vairagya (detachment) and aishwarya (opulence or grandeur of yoga).

Ekagram (concentrated): The state of vishuddha satva, completely freed from rajas, due to repeated practise (abhyasa) and proper understanding of enjoyable objects, resulting in loss of attachment (vairagya) and by repetition of similar thoughts (eka tattva abhyasa), understands the difference between consciousness (purusha) and mind (satva), leading to the state of samprajnata samadhi or a state of restful stillness associated with cognition of truth vitarka [gross objects], vichara-[subtle tanmatras, indriyas and others] ananda [bliss]-asmita [ego only].

Niruddham (stopped): At the of end all vrittis, only samskaras remain. Even satva guna is rejected, the state of non-perceptive samadhi or asamprajnata samadhi.

These stages can be seen as a progression towards a more focused, concentrated and ultimately still mind. The ultimate goal is to attain a state of niruddha, where the mind remains calm and free from disturbances (tasyapi nirodhe sarve-nirodhan-nirbhijah samadhih—pada 1/51). ⁷

The initial stage of samprajata samadhi is a state of restful stillness filled with truthful cognition of various objects (samapatti or samprajnata), arising out of meditation on some object (sa-alambana), without the help of indriyas. It passes through four stages, vitarka rupa anugama, in which the mind that meditates on gross objects with words or name, attains perfection, becomes still and experiences the sthula or gross maha bhutas (along with the sukshma tattvas and self); in vichara rupa anugama samprajnata, the yogi perceives only thoughts and the sookshma or subtle tanmatras (along with indriyas, ahankara, mahat tattva and the self); in ananda rupa anugama samprajnata samadhi, yogi experiences the ananda or happiness arising out of the stillness of mind, or ananda due to satva guna (according to some sattva guna of mula prakruti along with the self); in the fourth variety of asmita rupa anugama samprajnata samadhi, the yogis experiences only their localised self or buddhi (ekatma samvit) and nothing else with their minds. The mind, due to constant meditation, accrues the state of the meditated object (tat sthah tad anjanata) and perceives any meditated object in its true state. This perception is called samapatti or proper attainment. It is described as param pratyaksham, or the highest direct perception, which is never forgotten and is the basis for shruti and anumana as well. It passes through gross (vitarka) to subtle (vichara) stages with constant practise, and on perfection, yields the direct and retentive perception of the truth of different tatvas of prakruti and is called ‘rtambhara prajna’ or truth upholding cognition (rta is perceived truth as opposed to satya, which is conceptual truth), which is more specific than shruti or anumana. The samskaras created by this perception in samadhi destroy the other samskaras. When even this is stopped (nirodha), the samskaras of nirodha, with repeated practise, obstruct the samskaras of samadhi, leading to nirbeeja samadhi, and ultimately, samskaras are destroyed. These successive changes in the mind are named as ekagrata-parinama (transformation of one-pointedness), which makes the mind habitually one-pointed, samadhi parinama (transformation of concentration), which affects the cognised and latent samskaras and finally nirodha parinama (transformation of arrested state), which affects only the latent impressions. The mind then either remains in its pure original state of pure satva (atma kalpana vyavatishtate) in a meditative state, technically described as ‘Dharma Megha Dhyana’, and such a yogi unaffected by any misery is called a ‘mukta-kusala’ or a ‘jeevan mukta’ or the niruddha mind reverts back to prakruti (mano nasha of Sri Ramana Maharshi), never to return again, and this highest state of yoga is called ‘kaivalya’ (self-in-itself) and is attained in which one is established in one’s own true state (pada 1/5—Vyasabhashya and 41–50). ⁷

As per some authorities, the mind never ceases to exist. When it merges in avyakta, the three-fold misery ceases, and there is no more chance of it being manifested; the mind lapses and looks like having disappeared. The mind then remains in a state which is the equilibrium of the three gunas. Only the cause of misery, namely avidya, or correlation of self with object, disappears forever. Also, when it is described as rajas and tamas are destroyed, it only means that they lose their capability to obstruct discriminative knowledge (pada 1/5—Bhaswati, p. 17). ⁷

Those yogis (devas) who attain a high level of concentration on bhutas, tanmatras and others and realise their true nature, but do not progress up to viveka khyati, may remain bodiless (videha) in a state of bliss for a long period before being reborn or go to heavenly planets to enjoy contemplative bliss. Those who develop the highest detachment towards objects of prakruti, including the mind (para vairagya), and then attain the stage of asamprajnata samadhi or non-perceptive samadhi or mano laya into pradhana (prakruti layas) in which there is no object of meditation (nir-alambana or nir beeja), although the samskaras can persist in this state, and viveka khyati, which is not attained, will come back at a later date (bhava pratyaya).

But those yogis who practise Ishwara pranidhaana (placing mind completely on Ishwara with devotion) and practise asamprajnata samadhi repeatedly develop true discriminative knowledge of self versus buddhi (viveka khyati) due to being established in their identity as a self and also derive the highest uninterrupted bliss, which is the nature of the self, destroy even the residual samskaras, resulting in the stage of kaivalya (only the self) (or mano nasha), which is the highest goal of yoga or the state of jivan mukta of yoga and vedanta (pada 1/17–23). ⁷ In that state, some yogis (like Ishwara), with an intent to benefit humanity or as blessed by Ishwara, take up a ‘nirmana chitta’ (created mind) to teach others, a mind which is filled with right knowledge has no avidya and can arise and disappear at the will of the yogi.

In that state (sthitaprajna or stable wisdom, samadhistha, pandita, brahma vid, parama yogi and trigunatita), the yogi is described as being content only in one’s own self with no other desires, same towards every living being, including animals, plants, friends and foes, and treats all beings as themselves. They are equal to pleasure and pain, beyond love and hatred, praise or censure and beyond fear and anger (Chs. 2/44–70; 5/18–20; 6/32 and 14/22–25). ¹⁷ This stage of mind free from rajas and tamas is described as ‘satya buddhi’ in ayurveda, which leads to cognition of truth of the self, leading to looking at every form of life with equal eye and may correspond to rtambhara prajna of yoga (sha. 5/16–20). ⁴

Functioning of the Mind—Role of Tridoshas

Ayurveda and yoga discuss the role of tridoshas in the functioning of the mind. The prana, which is a special state of vayu in the body, controls the functioning of the mind and senses through its prana vata aspect. It is described as the controller (niyanta) and propeller (praneta) of the mind, and it engages the sense organs to interact with their objects (sutr. 12/4; su. 12/7),^{4, 10} apart from being responsible for respiration and other bulbar functions like sneezing, deglutition, becing and others.

Sri Ramana Maharshi, in fact, describes mind and vayu as originating from the shakti of brahman/atman and hence similar to two branches of the same trunk. The yogic technique of pranayama is based on this commonality of function of breathing and the mind by prana. So, the holding or lengthening of breath when practised gradually leads to mechanical stilling or slowing of the mind, similar to the immobility of a bird in a net when the net is tightened (11–12). ¹⁹

Sadhaka pitta, which is located in the hridaya, also assists the buddhi in the grasping and remembrance of its desired objects (sutra 12/13). ¹⁰

Avalambaka kapha, situated in the hridaya, helps in the nourishment of the hridaya as well as the indriyas (sutra 12/15). ¹⁰

Brain in Ayurveda—Mind–Brain Interaction

One of the most surprising aspects of ayurveda on a comparative study is the fact that brain is rarely discussed in ayurveda. It is not enumerated or discussed among the various solid organs in the body (sha. 3; sha. 7/20–21).^{4, 11} Charakra enumerates mastishka as a liquid dhatu between majja and shukra and says it is half anjali (volume of one’s own conjoined palms) in measure (sha. 7/25). ⁴ Chakrapani comments that mastishka is ‘siro gata sneha’ or the fat in the head.

The seat of brain, that is, the head or siras, is always described as the ‘seat of indriyas and indriya prana vaha srotas just like the sun and its rays’ (Siddhi 9/4–5). ⁴ Siras is also described as a ‘pradhana marma’ or the most important marma and a ‘sadyo prana hara marma’ or causing immediate death on injury, along with hridayam and vasti due to their being the seat of prana, so this description necessitates an understanding of these three concepts: indriyas, prana and marma.

Indriyas (five sensory—chakshu-organ of vision, srotram-organs of hearing, ghranam-organ of olfaction, rasanam- organ of taste, and sparsendriyam-organ of touch; and five motor-hastau-hands, padau or feet-organs of locomotion, guda-organ of excretion, upastha-reproductive organ, and vak indriya-organ of speech) as per ayurveda are subtle or sukshma, hence imperceptible, single (except hasta and pada), made up of satvika ahankara and sukshma pancha maha bhutas and are lodged in the gross sense organs like eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin and others, which are called as indriya adhisthanas, which are made of kapha, raktavaha srotas and mahabhutas. They help in perception only when in conjunction with the mind and generate specific perceptive knowledge called indriya buddhis (sutra 8/8–12; sha. 5).^{4, 18}

Pranas, or the bio-energy in body, is a special aspect of vayu maha bhuta, responsible for the functioning of various systems (kriya yuta) and makes matter look active or alive. Although one, it is described in five aspects as prana, udana, samana, vyana and apana. Prana is described as residing predominantly in siras, supports buddhi, hridaya, indriyas and manas and causes most of the bulbar or brainstem functions. Udana resides in uras, travels to nose, throat and nabhi, causes initiation of speech, bala (strength), smriti (memory) and others; vyana predominantly resides in hridaya and is responsible for all the voluntary motor movements; samana for the GI functioning; and udana for expulsion of urine, feces and others in perineal organs (su. 12/4–9). ¹⁰

Marmas are also a special concept of the vedas, and ayurveda describes them as a place of conjunction of the tridoshas (gross body), satva, rajas and tamas (mind or subtle body) and jivatman (consciousness). There is an abundance of bio-energy or pranas in these areas naturally. They are also described as formed by conjunction of mamsa, sira, snayu, asthi and sandhi (sha. 6/14,35). ¹¹

The concept of ‘snayu’ in ayurveda is closest to nerves or nerve fibres. Snayu is described as being made of lipid, as it is an upadhatu of medas (fat), and typically lower motor neuron diseases like tetanus are described due to its affliction apart from its description in hemiplegias and monoplegias in conjoint affliction with siras (blood vessels). So, it would be reasonable to conclude that sira-snayu-kandara represent the vascular-nerve muscles, respectively.

It is also pertinent to understand the pathogenesis of various neurological diseases described in ayurveda to further understand the concept of brain in it.

Unmada or the spectrum of psychiatric diseases is described as afflicting the buddhi located in the hridaya along with manovaha srotas (chi. 9/5) (manas is described as being able to use all srotas along with tridoshas (VI. 5/6)), and siras finds no mention. ⁴ In case of apasmara or seizures, which are typically described as a cortical phenomenon in modern medicine, the site of the vitiation by doshas is described as hridaya, along with the ‘indriya ayatanas’, which lie above the hridaya (ni. 8/4). ⁴ Hemiplegia, another disease involving the brain, is described as a disease involving one paksha (one hasta and pada), along with sira and snayu; similarly typically lower motor neuron diseases like tetanus are described as afflicting the snayus.

Understanding Electroencephalogram ²⁰

The slow-frequency delta waves represent the pranic activity to maintain the vitality of brain tissues/indriyas in deep sleep.

The alpha rhythm represents the mind traversing out of hridaya, entering the reticular activating system (RAS) via brainstem and thalamus (described as indriya ayatana; ni. 8/4) and stimulating the cortical networks in restful phase of waking state or jagrit avastha. ⁴

The beta rhythm represents an active mind that has now started interacting with various indriyas and hence the activation of various networks at a higher frequency.

Theta waves represent a mind afflicted with various doshas like kapha, pitta and others, and hence the slowed activity of mind.

The seizure wave pattern in a primary generalised tonic-clonic seizure arising from the thalamus also points to the extremely doshic vitiated mind initiating seizure activity from below the cortex and from the hridaya as per ayurveda.

Brain death/coma is described as a state in which there is permanent destruction of the cortex, and brainstem is described in ayurveda as ‘samnyasa’ in which rasa and rakta vaha srotas, along with ‘samjna or chetana vaha srotas’ described by Chakrapani as ‘manovaha srotas’, are afflicted apart from the hrudaya (the sthana of manas), causing srotorodha (obstruction of the pathway or channel) and thus moha of highest degree, which if not treated as an emergency, leads to death, the samjna vaha srotas would obviously include the RAS and its projections to the cortex, which are described as the channels of mind (su. 24/25–29). ⁴

In light of the above findings, it is reasonable to conclude the following with regard to brain and mind–brain interaction in ayurveda:

The source of consciousness is the Atman, which is non-material and omnipresent but is localised in hrudaya for samsarin or the embodied soul.

Mind–Body Interaction in Ayurveda—Effect of Doshas—Explaining Amine Hypothesis and Phineas Gage

As already discussed, ayurveda explains the relationship between the body and the mind based on the concept of ‘adhara-adheya’ or the container and the contained. Based on this concept, doshas of the body are known to elicit or increase emotions (krodhadi bhavas) in mind (very reminiscent of the amine hypothesis of modern science) and vice versa. According to this, increase in vata in the body increases emotions of bhayam (fear) and shokam (grief), vishada (sadness), asvapnam (disturbed sleep) and anavasthita chittatvam (instability of mind-restlessness or bipolar nature), while an elevated prakruta pitta increases shouryam (bravery/courage), but if vikruta (deranged), it causes krodham (anger), atrupti (dissatisfaction/irritability), mada (arrogance/aggression) and nidranasha (insomnia); kapham in natural or prakruta state causes manah prasada (clarity/pleasantness of mind), kshama/sahinshnuta (tolerance), dhruthi/achanchalyam (stability) and alobhatvam (lack of greediness); and when vikruta increases, it causes trupti (lethargy), alasyam (laziness), tandra (fatigue) and nidradhikyam (excessive sleep).

Correspondingly, krodha (anger), irshya (jealousy) and kama (lust) increase pitta in body and can aggravate related diseases or cause corresponding changes in the body; whereas bhaya (fear), vishada (sadness), dainya (meekness), shoka (grief) and chinta (excess thinking) apart from kama (passion/desire) and krodha (anger) cause vata, and lobha (greed), harsha (happiness) and alasya (laziness) increase kapha or related diseases or changes (chi. 3/115; chi. 28/15–18, ni. 7/6–7; ni. 8/4, su. 17/17, 22–26; su. 20/11, 14 and 15). ⁴

It is of utmost importance to note this mutual interaction between the body and mind, as this can serve as the basis to explain the detection of neuroactive amines (aspects of doshas), which affect human emotions, and also to look at the phenomenon that in the history of modern medicine has led to the development of the concept of monism or one-ness of mind and brain.

In the incident of Phineas Gage ²¹ whose severe injury to the brain and subsequent infection led to a significant alteration of personality, it is significant to note that the phenomenon could also be explained by the severe vitiation of vata and pitta and depletion of kapha consequent to the injury, infection and loss of tissue. It is important to understand that the doshas of the body have been explained as causing psychiatric disease like doshaja unmadas (ni. 7/4–7), ⁴ all of which result in serious and significant personality changes as they affect manovaha srotas (brain) and hrudaya.

So, in conclusion, as per ayurveda, it is important to understand that although mind can be affected by chemical and even significant physical changes in the body and brain, in particular, it is by no means limited to physical or chemical existence and has an aspect rooted in consciousness in it, unrelated to matter and so can get affected by other means, which affect consciousness.

Normal Healthy Mind According to Ayurveda and Darshanas

Unlike modern psychiatry, ayurveda describes a normal mind, as it views life itself from a transcendental point of view of the self. Hence, according to ayurveda, a normal mind is characterised by pure sattva guna, without any rajo and tamo gunas. Therefore, it has the characteristics of laghutvam (lightness), prakasham (illumination), sukham (happiness), jnanam (knowledge) and nirmalam (purity from rajas- and tamas-based emotions like lust, anger, greed, illusion, arrogance, jealousy and others). It is easier to perceive one’s true nature as a self through a normal or satvik mind. Rajas and tamas are considered as doshas or polluters of the mind and the knowledge of the self through yoga, knowledge of hita and ahita (dhi), and restraint from ahita (dhairya) is considered as its best medicine (su. 1/26; su. 1/32/—Indu commentary).^{10, 18}

Ways to Healthy Mind

Maintaining a predominance of sattva guna was considered of paramount importance in the maintenance of mental health, as mind is a junction of matter and consciousness; the ways to a healthy mind needed a material and a spiritual approach. Intake of food with a predominance of sattva guna was deemed essential, apart from sattvik inputs through various senses like eyes, ears and others (Ch. 7, 26.2), ¹⁶ also noteworthy is to remember the role of food in formation of mind and its diseases.

Ways to a Healthy Mind in Ayurveda

According to ayurveda, development of intellect to understand hita and ahita (dhee), developing restraint towards ahita objects (dhairya) and the knowledge of nature of self (atman) versus mind and body through practise of yoga is the best remedy for the doshas of the mind (Ashtanga Hrudaya, su. 1/26—Sarvanga Sundara commentary).

Practises for Healthy Mind in Yoga

Yoga darshana gives three sets of practises for control and health of mind based on the spiritual development of a person. 1.

For kanishta adhikaris or lesser qualified but keen on spiritual life (addressed as brahmana, due to knowledge about Brahman), the practise of the eight yoga angas is advised, which leads to purification of mind (ashuddhi kshaya), illuminating knowledge (jnana deepti) and spiritual discrimination (Viveka Khyati; pada 2/28–30). ⁷ These are as follows:

These five constitute the bahirangas or external parts f.

Dharana (fixing of mind)

The last three constitute the antarangas, and applied together are called samyama. 2.

For madhyama adhikaras or moderately evolved, the course of action for diminution of kleshas, and inducing stillness of mind, is described as kriya yoga (action for yoga; pada 2/1–2) ⁷ in three ways.

This abhyasa is practised only on one principle or eka tatva. b.

Ishwara pranidhana—a special form of meditation involving placing the mind completely on Ishwara, who is visualised as a luminous, ever pure, ever free from kleshas (ignorance, attachment), karmas (actions performed due to ignorance), vipaka (the results of such actions) and karmashayas (latent impressions formed due to actions), unsurpassably omniscient, blissful person/consciousness in one’s heart and meditated upon by chanting of his name Om, while contemplating on his attributes.

This brings us to the yoga ‘angas’, which are prescribed for the lesser evolved individuals, but form the vast majority of the society; hence, they need to be looked at more closely for their ability to purify and calm the mind (pada 2/30–32). ⁷

Yama: Restrains or things that should not be done include

Ahimsa Satyam Asteya Brahmacharya Aparigraha Yamah (2/30) a.

Ahimsa (non-violence): Not injuring any being by body, mind or words constitutes yogic ahimsa, and it is deemed as a primary pre-requisite for growth in yoga.

When practised without any regard for one’s profession, place, time and situation and towards one and all universally without any exceptions, these five become maha-vratas or great vows. 2.

Niyamas (observances or things to be done)

Shaucha Santosha Tapah Svadhyay Eshvarapranidhanani Niymah (2/32) a.

Shaucha: Cleanliness of body through bath, cleanliness of residence, consumption of pure (medhya—non-putrid, non-intoxicating and non-exciting) food constitutes external saucham, while purification of one’s thoughts and mind from arrogance, lust, anger and others is internal saucham.

These five constitute the niyamas.

Rationale for Ethics (Pada 2/35–45) ⁷

The result of practising these disciplines is also explained, which in fact is a much-needed information in the current society, where the rationale for following ethics is not understandable, and following these ethics many times constitutes a professional or career risk. 1.

Ahimsa prtishthayan tatsannidhau vairatyagah

On being firmly established in non-violence, all beings coming near him cease to be hostile. 2.

Satya prtishthayan kriyaphalashrayatvam

On being firmly established in truthfulness, the yogi’s words gets the power of attaining whatever is said. 3.

Asteya prtishthayan sarvaratnopasthanam

On being firmly established in non-stealing, all ratnas or the best among things, animate and inanimate, present themselves to the yogi. 4.

Brahmacharya prtishthayan viryalabhah

When continence is established, energy is gained, which results in supernatural powers and unparalleled ability to acquire and impart knowledge. 5.

Aparigrhasthairye janmakathantasambodhah

When a person becomes steadfast in non-receiving, they develop detachment from objects and body, and, by that, they get the memory of past and future lives. 6.

Shauchat svangjugupsa parairsamsargah; satva shuddhi soumanasya ekagryam indriyajayam atma darshana yogyatvani cha

When internal and external cleanliness are established, aversion towards one’s own body is developed and thus aversion extends to contact with others’ bodies as well. Also, purification of mind, a feeling of pleasantness in mind, one-pointedness, control over senses and ability for self-realisation are acquired gradually. 7.

Santoshad anuttama sukha labhaha

From contentment, the yogi gains unsurpassed happiness, which is incomparable or manyfold to any sensual enjoyment on earth or heaven. 8.

Kayendriya siddhihi ashuddhi kshayat tapasaha

Through the diminution of impurities, practise of tapas or austerities (pranayama, tolerance of hunger, sleep, posture and others) brings about perfection or siddhi of body like anima, mahima and others and perfection of organs like clairvoyance, clairaudience and others. 9.

Swadhyayat ishta devata samprayogaha

From study and repetition of mantras, communion with the desired Devata is established, and celestial beings and perfected beings become visible to the yogi, and the yogi’s wishes are fulfilled by them. 10.

Samadhi siddir ishwara pranidhanat

The yogi, who reposes all his thoughts on God, attains the state of samadhi and thus cognises everything desired to be known, apart from knowledge of past or future lives or at another place.

Yogic Technique for Handling Negative Thoughts

Handling of negative emotions during practise of yama niyamas is advised. Vitarka badhane pratipaksha bhavanam, that is, if troubled by negative thoughts, contemplation of opposing thoughts should be done. For example, if thoughts of violence or sexual thoughts trouble a person, they should contemplate on the infinite misery and endless ignorance they cause (dukha ajanana ananta phalada), by the impressions they create on the mind, and also contemplate on the glory of yoga dharma, moksha and the glory of brahma charya (pada 2/33–34). ⁷

A brief understanding of the other yoga angas, as per Patanjali, is as follows: 3.

Asana: Staying firmly or stably and comfortably in any (yogic) posture is asana, for example, padmasana, virasana, bhadrasana and others.

The perfection in asana gives the yogi the ability to remain unaffected by all dualities like heat, cold and others (2/46–48). ⁷ 4.

Pranayama (pada 2/49–51—bhasvathi; ayama = stretching/lengthening/expansion) ⁷

When established in an asana, the complete suspension of inhalation and exhalation is pranayama. The Patanjali system of pranayama appears to be different than the one mentioned in hatha yoga texts as rechaka (complete exhalation), puraka (complete inhalation) and kumbhaka (retention). It involves complete suspension of breathing, after expiration (bahya vritti) or after inspiration (abhyantara vritti) or simultaneous suspension of both either in inspiration or expiration, with some air remaining in the lungs, which gradually gets exhausted, with an effort at internal contraction of all limbs (stambhavritti), akin to mula (contraction of anus), uddayana (contraction of abdomen) and jalandhara (contraction of throat) bandhas of hatha yoga or even a fourth variety that is the perfection of pranayama, which is acquired only with proficiency at bahya or abyantara vritti, is very subtle and which has no considerations of bahya, abhyantara or desha kala and others. These techniques are to be practised gradually initially with development of a sturdy body through asanas, along with a strict diet /fasting/cleansing techniques, then initially the bahya or abhyantara vrittis are practised, increasing them very gradually till a satvika ease is experienced all over the body, and then stambha vritti is practised. Dharana on the heart or of Ishwara is to be practised simultaneously. The suspension can be long or short/subtle and is measured in terms of desha or place, which can be external or internal (distance from tip of nose, heart and others); kala or time or the number of kshanas or units of Gayatri mantra or Omkara or sankhya or number, that is, number of breath duration for which breathing is stopped, for example, stopping for time taken for 12 breaths—1 udghata or mild pranayama. This practise leads to initially one-pointedness and then gradually to samadhi. 5.

Pratyahara (prati—opposite, aharana—pulling): Due to repeated practise of one-pointedness of the mind, the senses follow the mind (like bees following the queen bee) and stop when the mind stops. They stop disturbing the mind and just follow the point of focus of mind and nothing else. This is the highest control of senses and is called pratyahara (pada 2/54–55). ⁷

Dharana, dhyana and samadhi together are called samyama in yoga, and practise of samyama on various objects leads to various yogic siddhis. For example, samyama on solar entrance or sushumna arising from the heart gives knowledge of the cosmic regions (bhuvana jnanam), samyama on nabhi chakra gives knowledge of the organisation of body (kaya vyuha jnanam; pada 3/1–6, 26 and 29). ⁷

Means to Healthy Mind and Knowledge and Sreyas in Vedanta

Vedanta emphasises on performance of one’s scripture ordained duties, based on one’s guna (domestic and sacrificial), without expectation of results (nishkama karma yoga), for the purification of mind, it suggests continuous contemplation of Ishwara (Ishwara Pranidhana), repeated practise of the same (abhyasa), performance of only actions dedicated to Lord (Ishwarapita karma), offering of the results of one’s work to the Lord and renouncing the results of one’s work in successive order of possibility, based on one’s situation (Ch. 12/6–12). ¹⁷ Karma yoga, Ishwara bhakthi, jnana yoga and pranayama and dhyana are suggested as four different paths leading to the same goal of moksha. Yajna (worship/sacrifice), dana (charity towards eligible) and tapas (austerities done with body, mind and speech) are spoken as purifying in nature that needs to be done continuously till attainment of state of yogaarudha (established in yoga) (Ch. 18/5). ¹⁷

The Gita discusses various qualities to be practised to attain the knowledge of the self (Ch. 13/7–11), ¹⁷ which, as per Vedanta, are the qualities of a healthy mind. These are equivalent to the yama and niyama of yoga. They are as follows:

Amanitvam—absence of boasting or humility

Also, the Gita discusses two categories of qualities (Ch. 16/1–18) ¹⁷

Daivi sampat: Divine or illuminating qualities that abound in satva guna lead to liberation and should be cultivated.

Daivi sampat includes

Abhayam—fearlessness

Asuri sampat, which should be shunned, includes

Dambha: Hypocrisy or show-off

Moksha

Yoge mokshe cha sarvasan vednanamavartnam| mokshe nivrttirnihshesha yogo mokshapravartakah (sa 1/137).^{3, 4}

All darshanas and ayurveda acknowledge the existence of a state that is completely devoid of all miseries, which is called moksha, and ayurveda acknowledges the path of yoga as the cause of liberation. This state is the ultimate goal of human life and constitutes the perfected state of human mind (jeevan mukti/dharma megha samadhi/trigunatita) or the state of the self without the mind (kaivalya/Brahmi sthithi/brahma bhuta), as already discussed.

Diseases of Mind in Ayurveda and Their Management—Salient Features

An extensive discussion of the diseases of mind, which forms a speciality or one of the eight angas (parts/limbs) of ayurveda, is beyond the scope of this article due to its exhaustiveness. But it is important to note the following points:

Ayurveda recognises two categories of psychiatric diseases, which are as follows:

Those caused by doshas, vata, pitta, kapha, nija unmadas (or caused by biochemical changes in body and brain) and

Psychiatric diseases are described as happening in persons (ni. 7/3–4) ⁴ a.

whose mind has a predominance of rajo and tamo gunas with depleted sattva guna, and hence having an abundance of kama (desire or lust), krodha (anger), lobha (greed), bhaya (fear), moha (wrong perception), shoka (sorrow), chinta (excessive thinking) and udwega (emotional excitement).

Then the doshas, which are vitiated by all these processes, in that state of weakened mind, reach the hridaya and cause doshaja unmada.

While agantuja unmada may result due to inappropriate actions (ahita acharana/aprashasta karma) towards one’s parents/elders/teachers/yogis/saints or towards a variety of other beings.

So, according to ayurveda, some varieties of chronic paranoid schizophrenia would be classified as agantuja, meaning that, in them, it is not a split of one personality into two, but the entry of another foreign personality or consciousness to make it two personalities in one body.

Hence, the management of psychiatric diseases automatically involves multiple limbs, ¹ yukti vyapashraa or rational application of medications

This can be of two varieties:

Adravyabhuta chikitsa: Involving non-physical therapies like (chi. 9/79–86) ⁴

It involves the use of physical/chemical or material substances (dravyas) in the form of food and medicines to balance the deranged doshas (Samana) apart from their expulsion through bio-cleansing of pancha karma (shodhana). a.

It is interesting to note the extensive use of ghritas (clarified butter) as medicines, implying the deep understanding of the blood–brain barrier and its penetration by lipids apart from the high lipid composition of the brain itself. Also notable is the wide usage of anjana or collyrium and nasya or nasal administration in the management of psychiatric diseases.

Conclusion

Ayurveda and the darshana shastras, like Sankhya-Yoga and Vedanta darshana, basing themselves on the intuitive perception of the Rishis and the revelation of Ishwara, offer a comprehensive, subtle, unique yet universal understanding of the mind in terms of its health, its perfection and its disease. This knowledge, which has been in vogue for millennials and formed the bedrock on which Indian and many other civilisations, have flourished and co-existed peacefully at global, societal, family and individual levels. Today’s world, which gives an excessive importance on the body and sense gratification, is facing an unprecedented challenge of mental health issues due to rapid breakdown of values that preserve health or complete ignorance regarding the functioning of the mind. Hence, understanding these fundamentals not only helps us understand the collective unconscious of this civilisation, but also helps us to fill the gaps left by modern medicine to enable and empower one and all to have a healthy and happy mind.