Abstract
The main focus of the study is to analyse two important policies of the Government of India: The Public Distribution System (PDS) and the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM). This study is based on primary as well as secondary data. A well-structured questionnaire has been used to collect information from beneficiaries. Three regions, Majha, Malwa, and Doaba, were selected from Punjab, India. The purposive sampling method was followed to select the sample. For the PDS analysis, the Atta-Dal scheme, launched in Punjab in 2007, was considered, and a sample of 480 beneficiaries was interviewed. On the other hand, under the NRLM scheme, a sample of 130 beneficiaries, who are self-help group members, was interviewed. The responses of beneficiaries were perception-based. A five-point Likert scale has been used to determine the level of satisfaction of NRLM beneficiaries. The results show that the Atta-Dal scheme under the PDS in Punjab has improved the food security of the rural poor. Regarding the NRLM, the results reveal that the scheme has improved beneficiaries’ employability and financial independence, especially women, and thus ensured their livelihood sustainability.
Introduction
The Public Distribution System (PDS) in India provides food security to poor people. The main function of the Department of Food and Public Distribution is to formulate and implement national policies to regulate the supply of food grains. It provides storage, buffer stocking, quality control, and import-export facilities. The PDS emanated from the 1960s critical food shortages and was later streamlined into the Revamped PDS in June 1992. The main objective of revamping the scheme was to improve food grain accessibility to poor people in hilly and inaccessible areas. With effect from June 1997, the government launched the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) to cover the existing PDS weaknesses and identify and provide food grains to BPL families at highly subsidised rates (Balani, 2013). Under the TPDS, beneficiaries were divided into three categories: households below the poverty line (BPL), households above the poverty line (APL), and households in Antodaya Anna Yojana (AAY).
AAY was launched on 25 December 2000, to make the TPDS more targeted and focused. AAY targeted the poorest among the people BPL in India. Few priority groups such as landless agricultural labourers, marginal farmers, rural artisans, slum dwellers, primitive tribal households, households headed by widows, old aged and disabled persons, persons earning a daily livelihood, and destitute are entitled to AAY cards. Under AAY, beneficiaries are provided highly subsidised food grains, such as wheat at ₹2 per kg and rice at ₹3 per kg. In 2002, the number of issues for AAY families increased from 35 kg per family per month to 25 kg per family per month. In 2004, the AAY benefits were extended to 2 crore families; in 2005, its coverage was extended to 2.5 crore familie.
On 19 March 2007, the Government of Punjab announced the launch of the Atta-Dal scheme to provide wheat and pulses to poor families at subsidised rates. A detailed survey was conducted to identify poor households and issue them ration cards. An annual income ceiling had been fixed for families’ eligibility under which households with ₹30,000 annual income can avail themselves of the scheme’s benefits. The Government of Punjab revamped the scheme into the new Atta-Dal scheme on 29 November 2013 under the National Food Security Act (2013). In the new scheme, the distribution of wheat at ₹1 per kg and pulses at ₹20 per kg was assured. All the existing beneficiaries, such as those BPL, AAY, and blue card holders, would be eligible for the scheme (Government of Punjab, 2007).
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) was initiated in 1999. It was later reorganised into the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) in the year 2010–2011 to create time-bound and targeted delivery of results of the scheme. NRLM was renamed Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihood Mission (DAY-NRLM) on 29 March 2016. The mission’s main objective is to eradicate poverty by promoting sustainable livelihoods for the rural poor. The scheme provides access to credit, helps diversify and strengthen livelihoods, and enhances access to public services. DAY-NRLM has been mobilising rural women by forming and financing their Self-Help Groups (SHGs) and linking these clusters with various livelihood interventions. The study’s main objective is to determine the effectiveness of the Atta-Dal scheme under the PDS in improving the food security of the rural poor in Punjab. Regarding the NRLM, the study determines whether the scheme has improved beneficiaries’ employability and financial independence, especially women. The study also ensures the effect of schemes on the livelihood sustainability of beneficiaries.
Literature Review
Deb’s (2009) study analysed the efficiency of ₹2 per kg. rice scheme, which was relaunched in the state of Andhra Pradesh. It was introduced in the year 1982–1983 in the PDS. However, the rate of rice was finally fixed at ₹5.25 per kg during the 1990s after many changes. The study examined the subsidy burden and consumer benefit involved in the rice scheme and concluded that there was a small gap between the two. The study pointed out that Andhra Pradesh is suffering from a higher subsidy burden resulting from low prices of food grains. It was recommended that a cost-effective strategy be adopted if it continues in the long run. Balani’s (2013) study analysed the TPDS and identified the significant challenges in its implementation. The study found many loopholes in implementing the TPDS. The system suffers from inaccurate identification of beneficiaries and leakages in the delivery mechanism. Inappropriate transportation, lack of covered storage of food grains, misclassification of poor as non-poor, and vice-versa are identified as the major issues in the implementation. To minimise these problems in the future, several states implemented various reforms in different ways. Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh use information technology (IT) through digitisation of ration cards and GPS tracking of delivery. Tamil Nadu makes use of universal PDS. Cash transfers and food coupons are some of the alternatives to the TPDS provided by the authorities.
Ghumaan and Dhiman (2014) conducted a study in the Sangrur district of Punjab. One of the study’s main objectives was to analyse the price, quality, accessibility, and availability of food grains supplied by the government to the people under the PDS. The study also examined the satisfaction level of consumers regarding the overall functioning of the food supply system in Sangrur. Mohapatra and Mahalik’s (2015) study analysed the reasons for leakages in India’s PDS. The study also conducted one case analysis in Odisha state, selecting 10 respondents from different villages in the Dhenkanal district through a questionnaire. The study found that the main reason for the leakages is the diversion of food grains in the open market, which is why actual PDS users have not been getting the right amount of food grains at the right time.
Grover and Chopra’s (2017) study analysed the demographic and facilitating factors affecting consumer preference for the 6-monthly distribution system. The study also evaluated the new semi-annual system of distribution of wheat and pulses under the Atta-Dal scheme. It concluded that people are satisfied with hassle-free, longer-time procurements rather than a 1-month system. The study recommended that policymakers should not undermine the importance of consumer satisfaction and realise it in further developmental policies. Satyanarayana and Babu’s (2019) study analysed the impact of ICT reforms on the PDS in Andhra Pradesh. The study also examined the Aadhaar-enabled PDS objectives. The main objectives of the Aadhaar-enabled PDS were to ensure the delivery of food rations to eligible and genuine beneficiaries and monitor the movement of PDS stocks to improve service delivery through online real-time transactions.
Kaur’s (2021) study analysed the Atta-Dal scheme in Punjab. The study was based on secondary data. The study revealed that the PDS has ensured food security for poor people, especially women and urban poor. The PDS has been smoothening the supply of food essentials for poor households. The study highlights the increasing distribution cost of implementing the National Food Security Act and problems related to the 6-monthly distribution of food grains. Kundu’s (2009) study examined the impact of SGSY on SHG members in the Bankura district of West Bengal. The survey for the study was conducted from January 2006 to July 2006. A sample of 181 Self Help Groups was selected. Respondents constitute 143 group leaders and 219 ordinary members. The study’s main objective was to examine the scheme’s benefits to the ultra-poor sections of society. The study analysed SGSY’s role in reducing rural women’s poverty and their families. It was found that the scheme has improved the empowerment of SHG members.
Umdor and Panda’s (2009) study assessed the impact of SHGs formed under the SGSY in Meghalaya. The study compared differences in beneficiaries’ socioeconomic variables, such as access to credit under the scheme, household income, consumption, and income diversification. The study found that members’ social and economic empowerment has improved through increased access to credit under the SGSY. Ali’s (2011) study in Uttar Pradesh evaluated the government initiative to promote micro-enterprises under the SGSY. The study showed that SHGs formed under SGSY can potentially upgrade rural areas’ social and human capital. However, the major focus of SHGs was on the provision of loans and subsidies rather than skill development and entrepreneurial gradation, which slowed down the development process.
Badodiya et al.’s (2012) study analysed the SGSY in the Maror block of the Gwalior district of Madhya Pradesh. It found that education, family size, attitude, innovativeness of beneficiaries, social participation, source of information, and knowledge about SGSY have a significant and positive relationship with the scheme’s annual income increase. Mishra’s (2014) study examined the poverty alleviation schemes initiated by the Government of India and highlighted the role of the NRLM in curbing poverty. The study was conducted in the Sonepur district of Odisha. The study identified the improved features of the NRLM compared to the previous SGSY scheme. It was found that the NRLM is a demand-driven scheme that is targeted at choosing families BPL through Participatory Identification of the Poor (PIP). The study also examined whether or not the irrigation facility in Sonepur district has any effect on the progress of the NRLM.
Jagadeeswari’s (2015) study analysed the NRLM scheme in the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu. The study examined the scheme’s impact on the empowerment and income level of women members under SHGs. The study found a significant impact of the NRLM scheme on women’s empowerment and quality of life. The study reveals that women’s social and economic conditions have improved due to the microfinance facility provided under the scheme. Jayasree and Suresh Babu (2016) evaluated the impact of the NRLM in the Nalgonda district of Telangana. The study found that beneficiary households’ incremental incomes were higher in Nalgonda district. Even the employment days under the scheme have shown an incremental trend. Most beneficiaries have achieved a full employment level of 297 days under the scheme. A sharp decline has been noticed in the poverty incidence of beneficiaries.
Several studies on the Atta-Dal Scheme (PDS) and the NRLM have been conducted periodically in India. However, no study has been conducted in Punjab to examine the impact of these schemes on beneficiaries’ food security and financial independence. This study analyses the beneficiaries’ livelihood sustainability based on the PDS (Atta-Dal Scheme) and NRLM.
Methodology
This study aims to analyse the effectiveness of the Atta-Dal scheme under the PDS and NRLM in promoting sustainable livelihoods of the rural poor in Punjab. The nature of the study is such that it requires both primary and secondary data. The secondary data used in this study were obtained from various publications and websites. The primary data used were obtained through a well-structured questionnaire. The method followed is purposive sampling. Data was collected through personal interviews. Likert scale is used to determine the level of satisfaction about the effectiveness of the NRLM scheme. The rating was done on a 5-point Likert scale (Not at all satisfied-1, partly satisfied-2, Satisfied-3, More than satisfied-4, and Very satisfied-5). The average index value was calculated to analyse the scheme’s effectiveness in various aspects. As the rating scale is a 5-point scale, an average index value of 3 or more indicates the scheme’s effectiveness regarding various aspects.
All the sample villages include people from different castes, such as General Caste, Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe, and Other Backward Castes. The study shows which of the above caste categories has benefitted most from the scheme. The questionnaire includes questions related to women’s and children’s welfare. Also, their food security and nutritional status have been verified. Women get loans under NRLM for domestic purposes such as children’s study fees, which changes their vision regarding child education. This change indicates women’s and children’s welfare. Moreover, women’s and children’s health and hygiene expenses are also included in the welfare criterion. The scheme provides financial independence to women so they can easily manage their kitchen expenses and provide their families with a nutritional diet such as seasonal fruits and vegetables, dairy products, etc.
The state of Punjab in India has been selected for this study. There are three regions in Punjab: Majha, Malwa, and Doaba. For data collection, two districts are selected from each of these regions. The selection of districts is based on two criteria. One district from each region is selected based on more households completing 100 days of employment under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) in the financial year 2017–2018. Tarn Taran, Ludhiana, and Kapurthala districts are selected from Majha, Malwa, and Doaba. The second district from each region was selected based on the higher total employment provided under MGNREGS in the financial year 2017–2018. Amritsar, Moga, and Hoshiarpur districts are selected from Majha, Malwa, and Doaba. The study is based on a sample of 480 respondents, 80 each from Tarn Taran, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Moga, Kapurthala, and Hoshiarpur districts, for analysing the effectiveness of the PDS and Atta-Dal scheme. As the NRLM scheme has different beneficiaries, 130 beneficiaries or SHG members are selected from the sample districts.
Results and Discussion
Findings on Atta-Dal Scheme (PDS) in Punjab
The Atta-Dal scheme was initially based on yellow cards, also called BPL cards (centrally sponsored schemes/cards). The ration cards were used to supply food grains and other provisions to the poor and needy people at a subsidised rate. These cards were issued to people categorised under the Below Poverty Line (BPL) to avail the benefits provided by the government. After 2014, yellow cards for food grain distribution were replaced with blue cards. Since that year, all Fair Price Shops (FPS) in Punjab have been working under blue cards. The FPS system was started in 2016 in almost all the villages of Punjab. Nowadays, all the villages follow the Priority Holders (PH) category for food grain distribution. The Punjab government replaced existing blue cards with new smart ration cards in September 2019. The beneficiaries would get smart cards with chips embedded into them. Moreover, they do not need to carry their respective Adhaar cards to collect their food grains from fair-price shops. Since 2019, food grains have been supplied 6 monthly in March and September (
The scheme categorised the beneficiaries into Antoyadya Yojana (AAY) and Priority Holders (PH). Antoyadya Yojana category beneficiaries should have to satisfy the specific conditions for availing benefits under the same, such as people suffering from chronic diseases (e.g., AIDS and cancer). According to Table 1, a majority of 96% of respondents claimed Priority Holders (PH), and a meagre (4%) claimed AAY category in the sample beneficiaries. A Blue card can only be issued to people 18 years and above, the minimum age limit. However, there may be more than one unit in one blue card. Also, the quantity per unit is the same for all the units (family members) of the card. The distribution is done for 6 months, and 5 kg of wheat per unit is provided under the scheme. According to the survey, a maximum of 75.21% had more than 4 units in their households. Only 24.17% had less than four family members or units in their households.
Detail of Atta-Dal Scheme Beneficiaries.
Most respondents (93.75%) submitted their application for blue cards to the Zila-parishad officer. Only a few respondents submitted their applications to the Gram panchayats office (3.33%) and the Block officer (2.92%). This is because these cards are prepared by district and block development officers (BDOs). All the respondents said they provided only an Adhaar card as the required document for the blue card. Photographs on the card are not mandatory, which is why the majority of 99% of respondents did not have photographs.
Usually, only one shop (FPS) is fairly priced in one village, but some also have more than one FPS. According to Table 2, out of the sample of 480 beneficiaries, 92% of respondents said there is only one FPS in their villages, and only 8% revealed two FPS in their respective villages. In the case of items provided under the scheme, only wheat and dal have been provided during the study period. Other items, such as rice and kerosene oil, were never distributed during the study period. Dal was only provided 6 months during the pandemic (from October 2019 to March 2020). Of the total, 83% of respondents revealed that wheat and dal commodities were provided under the scheme. Only 17% of beneficiaries said they got only wheat at a subsidised rate. Also, the new distribution system, Epos (electronic point of sales), has been operational since 2016 in Punjab. Almost all the respondents said the new system (FPS) has been functional since 2016.
Atta-Dal Scheme Working.
As per Table 3, the FPS provided more transparency and convenience to the beneficiaries, but only some respondents (66%) said that the scheme transparency has improved. Approximately 34% of beneficiaries responded that the new system (FPS) improved women and child welfare. Although the Atta-Dal scheme provided food security to most of the beneficiaries (advocated by 92% of the respondents), they found some drawbacks. Half of the respondents said that the 6-monthly distribution is the biggest drawback of the scheme. Approximately 38% of respondents said that the scheme is not transparent, and 12% of respondents said that the scheme is not accessible.
Perception Regarding the Effectiveness of the Atta-Dal Scheme.
All of the sample beneficiaries gave their suggestions regarding improving the scheme. Out of the total, 47% of respondents said that more commodities should be added to the quota of each beneficiary. Moreover, 26% responded that there should be a monthly distribution of commodities rather than a 6-month distribution. Another 26% added that more commodities like tea leaves other than those (wheat, rice, pulses, kerosene oil) already in the scheme should be added. Thus, the efficiency of the Atta-Dal scheme is proven with the positive responses of 92% of beneficiaries, revealing that the scheme has provided them with food security.
Findings on NRLM in Punjab
Table 4 shows the details of NRLM workers from all the sample districts. Accordingly, the majority of 56% of respondents belong to the Scheduled Caste category. Approximately 25% of respondents belonged to Other Backward Caste OBC, and 19% belonged to other castes. No respondent belongs to the Scheduled Tribes category in the sample, probably due to the meagre proportion of the Scheduled Tribe population in Punjab. From the point of view of Participatory Identification of the Poor (PIP), the highest proportion (72.3%) of respondents belongs to the poor category. Out of all the 130 respondents, no one belongs to a mixed SHG. The whole sample of respondents belonged to all women’s SHGs. Training SHG members are essential to performing their respective duties efficiently. More than half of the respondents (63.8%) belong to the trained category of members, and only 36% of respondents are untrained.
Detail of NRLM Workers.
The majority of sample villages had access to the scheme in 2019. Most respondents (48%) revealed that they joined the scheme during the year (2019) when it was started in their villages. A few 8% responded that they joined the scheme in 2020. The villagers can be informed of the scheme’s provisions through various sources such as panchayats, street plays, posters, etc. Sarpanch and women get-togethers are the main sources of awareness among the majority of respondents (33%). According to 27% of respondents, cultural programmes and street plays, according to 24% of respondents, are also significant sources of awareness regarding the scheme. Moreover, 15% of respondents said pamphlets informed them of the scheme.
SHG members get information about different provisions of the NRLM scheme through various sources such as newspapers, State Rural Livelihood Mission (SRLM) staff, friends, and Anganwadi workers. The majority, 65%, of respondents said they get information through the SRLM team and staff. Approximately 26% responded that their source of information is their friends. Fewer than 9.2% responded that Anganwadi workers provided them with information about the scheme.
The SHG members were asked about the activities conducted under NRLM and the benefits gained through the membership of the scheme. According to Table 5, all the respondents said that the SHG members manage and perform the work under the group. Map drawing is a special tool of the NRLM scheme, which is quite popular among SHG members and the community. Map drawing is a visual exercise of gathering and presenting information about the village in a pictorial form. It gives information about the village’s layout, natural resource endowment, population endowment, literacy and health status, infrastructure, and gender bias. During map drawing, SHG members can use their household objects and materials as the symbol of real endowments. The majority, 82% of respondents, said they participated in map drawing in their villages.
Self-Help Group Working and Benefits.
More than half (59%) of respondents said they have their information card related to the scheme. However, 41% of respondents said their information cards were not made. The highest number of respondents (65%) revealed that the SHG meetings are done weekly. Only 35% responded that their meetings are done every month. Half of the respondents revealed that the main benefit of the scheme is an increase in income. One-fourth of them said their awareness has increased due to the SHG membership. Another one-fourth said that women’s empowerment is the main benefit to their community, which is possible to the SHG membership.
All the respondents said they contribute the same amount to the Group Corpus Fund of the SHG. Community Resource Persons (CRPs) provide awareness about the scheme and form village SHGs. All the 130 respondents said that the main role of CRPs is to form SHGs. All the sample beneficiaries knew that it is mandatory to have government proof regarding the participatory identification of the poor (PIP). SHG members contribute on a weekly, monthly, and yearly basis. The analysis shows that more than half (56%) of respondents contribute weekly, and less than half (44%) of respondents contribute monthly. The whole sample group responded that their savings per group are ₹100. No one answered less than or more than that. Regarding revolving funds/bank loans to SHGs, a total sample of 130 respondents said that they received it only one time. And 82.3% of respondents revealed that they received ₹15,000 as a revolving fund/bank loan. While 9.2% of respondents received ₹12,000, another 8.5% received ₹11,000 as a revolving fund/bank loan. Also, all the respondents stated that the revolving fund/bank loan status was nonrefundable.
Soft toy making is one of the major activities in which many beneficiaries (35%) are engaged. Few, 16.2%, are engaged in handloom activities. Almost half of the respondents were engaged in other activities such as mushroom making, tailoring, candle making, etc. In weaving, soap making, and piggery works, no sample SHG is engaged. All the 130 sample beneficiaries revealed that the SHGs and NRLM works have increased their income level. Due to the increased income, they have managed to repay their past debts. In the future, they will feel confident in getting total independence from the moneylenders.
Level of Satisfaction About the Effectiveness of the NRLM Scheme
Respondents were enquired about their satisfaction level regarding the NRLM scheme’s effectiveness. As per Table 6, out of the 130 respondents, the majority, 71 beneficiaries, are either more than satisfied or highly satisfied with activities performed by SHGs. Of the 43 respondents, 43 said they were satisfied with the NRLM activities. The higher average index value (3.6) shows the respondents’ perception of SHG activities is entirely satisfactory.
Level of Satisfaction with the Effectiveness of the NRLM Scheme.
The SHG members gave their ratings regarding awareness about other schemes, such as MGNREGS. Accordingly, most respondents (76%) are more than or highly satisfied with their awareness level after joining NRLM. The good average index value of 4.03 on a 5-point scale indicates that joining Self Help Groups has improved their knowledge about the Atta-Dal scheme, MGNREGS, and other social welfare schemes. When respondents were enquired about changes in confidence level and empowerment due to the scheme, the majority, 65 beneficiaries, reported being more than satisfied. 38 respondents were satisfied with confidence and empowerment. The average index value is 3.36, a good indicator of the change in confidence and empowerment of rural women after joining SHG. However, in rural areas, women face many social constraints, such as male dominance in financial matters, limiting their empowerment.
Women get loans under NRLM for domestic purposes such as children’s study fees, which changes their vision regarding child education. Out of 130 respondents, the majority, 68 beneficiaries, are either satisfied or more than satisfied with the change in their vision regarding child education. The average index value (2.56) shows that the change in vision regarding child education is satisfactory. There is no doubt that after joining SHGs, the economic identity of women members has been strengthened. The majority, 70% of respondents, are more than satisfied with this rating criterion. The higher average index (3.89) indicates a good position of women regarding their economic independence after becoming SHG members. The economic identity and women’s financial inclusion through individual bank accounts were also considered. Out of the total, 68% of respondents are either more than satisfied or highly satisfied with their bank accounts, which increased their financial inclusion. The average index value is 3.83, which shows more than satisfactory change in women’s financial inclusion.
Respondents were asked about changes in gender equality and social protection due to the scheme. The majority, 79% of respondents, experienced major changes regarding these issues and reported being more than or highly satisfied with their gender equality and social protection. The good average index value (4.05) indicates that women’s position has effectively improved regarding gender equality and social protection. The majority, 44% of respondents, responded satisfactorily regarding food security and nutritional improvements. The average index value (2.89) shows satisfactory improvement in the food security of respondents. The NRLM scheme was started to target rural poor and vulnerable groups. The majority of rural women are distressed, such as in the SC/ST caste category or disabled or any other kind of financial deprivation. Approximately 40% of respondents reported that they are more than satisfied with including vulnerable groups of society through the scheme. The good average index value (3.26) shows satisfactory change in including women from vulnerable groups.
Social Action Committees are formed to solve gender issues, such as shutting alcohol shops in villages. The majority of respondents (46%) are satisfied with the working of the Social Action Committee in their villages. Out of the total, 18% of respondents are more than satisfied with this scheme aspect. Moreover, 33% are partly satisfied with the Social Action Committee’s work. The average index value is 2.85, which indicates that Social Action Committees are taking moderate actions to remove gender issues. However, many efforts are needed to ensure women’s excellent and safe position in society.
This study is based on primary data and is limited to 12 blocks of six districts from three regions of Punjab State, that is, Majha, Malwa, and Doaba. The respondents have been selected based on purposive sampling. The sample can never fully represent the total population. The data on various variables involves recall bias. Most respondents were busy with work and had little time for the interview. Many apprehended adverse consequences of such research work. Despite the abovementioned limitations, earnest efforts were made to collect data objectively. The best use of data has been made to make the study reliable and purposeful.
Conclusion and Policy Implications
This study analyses the effectiveness of the Atta-Dal scheme as an important policy for poverty alleviation and food security. It also assesses the working and effectiveness of the Punjab NRLM scheme. The Government of Punjab launched the Atta-Dal to provide subsidised food grains (wheat and pulses) to poor families. The main objective of the NRLM is to eradicate poverty through promoting sustainable livelihoods of the rural poor. The scheme provides access to credit, helps diversify and strengthen livelihoods, and enhances access to public services. The study indicates that the Atta-Dal scheme provides food security to poor households in Punjab. The results also reveal that the NRLM scheme has improved beneficiaries’ employability and financial independence, especially women, and thus ensured their livelihood sustainability.
According to the survey, most Atta-Dal beneficiaries belong to the Priority Holders (PH) category rather than Antoyadya Ann Yojana (AAY). There can be more than one unit under one card in a household. A maximum of 75.21% had more than 4 units under their one card. The blue cards are prepared by district and BDOs. That is why most beneficiaries submitted their application to the Zila-parishad officer for issuance of cards. All the respondents said they provided only an Adhaar card as the required document for the blue card. Photographs are not mandatory on the cards, so most beneficiaries did not have photographs.
Typically, only one shop (FPS) is fairly priced in one village, but some also have more than one FPS. Only wheat and dal have been provided to the beneficiaries for items provided under the scheme. Other items, such as rice and kerosene oil, had never been distributed. With the start of the new system, Epos, beneficiaries felt that transparency and convenience under the scheme had been improved. Some beneficiaries advocated that women and child welfare improved due to the new system (Epos). The study found some drawbacks in the scheme, such as 6-monthly distribution, less transparency, and less accessibility.
All of the sample beneficiaries gave their suggestions regarding improving the scheme. Some beneficiaries recommended more quantity of commodities, and others suggested adding more items, including wheat, rice, pulses, and kerosene oil. The above analysis indicates that the Atta-Dal scheme provides food security to poor households in Punjab. However, authorities should revise the 6-monthly distribution system. The improved food security of the rural poor paved the way for promoting a sustainable livelihood for the rural poor in Punjab. Another study by Kaur (2021) found similar results, such as food grain distribution under the Atta-Dal scheme, improving poor households’ food security. However, implementing the PDS system needs improvement to control leakages and malpractices prevailing in food grain distribution.
The study shows the implementation and effectiveness of the NRLM scheme in Punjab. The above analysis portrays women’s important place in the NRLM scheme, as all the SHGs observed were all-women SHGs. Most of them belong to the SC category. Most beneficiaries were resource-poor, having little financial and physical resources. Regarding map drawing, most beneficiaries responded that they participated in the map drawing activity. The main benefit of the scheme is income increase due to the membership and activities of SHGs. Due to the income increase, beneficiaries’ dependence upon money lenders has declined. Women members have become independent in financial matters. The scheme increased beneficiaries’ income and significantly impacted their awareness and women’s empowerment levels.
Most respondents are engaged in handloom, soft-toy making, tailoring, and mushroom-making activities. They are well acquainted with MGNREGS, the Atta-Dal scheme, and other social welfare schemes. Due to the patriarchal system of Indian society, women face male dominance in almost all areas of the community. The scheme joining has provided them more independence in financial issues and other household activities. Women also reported improvement in their families’ nutritional status and food security. The most vulnerable groups of women, such as widows, the disabled, and the SC/ST caste category, are more than satisfied with the inclusion criterion of the scheme. The results reveal that the scheme has improved beneficiaries’ employability and financial independence, especially women, and thus ensured their livelihood sustainability. Thus, the NRLM scheme has improved their living standard and given them a dignified place in society.
However, there is a need to diversify the activities performed by SHGs in Punjab further. The scope of the NRLM must be widened to promote start-ups by already trained women entrepreneurs. Jagadeeswari’s (2015) findings depict that beneficiaries’ social and economic conditions have improved due to the microfinance facility provided under the NRLM. Similarly, Khan’s (2018) study stated that Swarozgaris’ savings balance with banks has increased due to their membership in the NRLM, which thus has a significant impact on their socioeconomic development.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.