Abstract
Keywords
Child maltreatment is a worldwide social problem. It was estimated that globally, up to 1 billion children have experienced child maltreatment, including physical, sexual, emotional violence, or neglect (Word Health Organization, 2020). The prevalence of child maltreatment is similar across the globe (Hillis et al., 2016; Stoltenborgh et al., 2015). In China, Fang et al. (2015) estimated that 27% of children under the age of 18 had suffered physical abuse, 20% suffered emotional abuse, 9% suffered sexual abuse, and 26% suffered neglect, resulting in a 1.8% of GDP loss in 2010. Experiencing child maltreatment can lead to both short-term and long-term physical and mental health problems, ultimately hindering a country's economic and social development (Van Harmelen et al., 2010; Yanos et al., 2010). Protecting children from possible maltreatment is crucial for eliminating violence against children. Achieving such a goal relies on the prompt and accurate recognition of child maltreatment. However, research showed that only a small portion of child maltreatment was successfully recognized around the globe (Stoltenborgh et al., 2015; WHO, 2022).
Cross-cultural studies have demonstrated that different societies have varying thresholds and definitions for what constitutes maltreatment, reflecting deep-seated cultural norms and values that can significantly influence the recognition of child abuse. For instance, in some Western cultures, emotional abuse, such as constant criticism and humiliation, is widely recognized and condemned. In many Asian cultures, however, these behaviors might be seen as part of strict parenting aimed at encouraging academic excellence (Agathonos-Georgopoulou, 1992). Similarly, in some Asian cultures, including China, physical discipline is often viewed as an essential part of upbringing and community values. It is frequently tolerated and not recognized as maltreatment, making it less likely to be reported as abuse (Qiao & Chan, 2005; Stoltenborgh et al., 2015). Traditional Chinese beliefs often frame harsh disciplinary behaviors as necessary measures rather than abusive actions. Therefore, it is important to be culturally sensitive in child protection, acknowledging that effective interventions, including the identification and reporting of child abuse, must consider cultural contexts to be successful (Finkelhor & Korbin, 1988; Stoltenborgh et al., 2015).
The challenge of timely and accurate recognition of child maltreatment stems from its hidden nature. Abused children often lack the awareness or ability to report the maltreatment themselves (Kendall-Tackett & Eckenrode, 1996; Sauzier, 1989). Therefore, an effective child protection system relies on professionals who have close contact with children to report incidents of maltreatment. Social workers are among the major stakeholders in the child protection system due to their constant interactions with children and people surrounding them. They have many opportunities to encounter potential child maltreatment cases and serve as critical resources in linking multiple support systems. The ability of social workers to recognize child maltreatment is vital in any child protection system. While existing research highlighted the crucial role of recognizing child maltreatment for successful reporting (Flaherty et al., 2008), limited studies focused on improving the abilities of child maltreatment recognition among child protection professionals. Some studies have shown that social workers with a formal education in social work or professional certificate demonstrate higher levels of recognition of child maltreatment (Apgar, 2019; Xu et al., 2021). However, other research has found that an educational background in social work does not significantly enhance the performance of child welfare workers (Perry, 2006a, 2006b). The potential positive association between social work education, certificate, and the recognition of child maltreatment implies the importance of curriculum settings and professionalization in preparing social workers with adequate knowledge of child maltreatment. However, there is a lack of comparison regarding the variations in the influences of different levels of social work education or professional certificates. Additionally, some studies found significant variations among social workers in recognizing different subtypes of child maltreatment, such as physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, or neglect (Lau et al., 2005; Litrownik et al., 2003; Nayda, 2002), highlighting the need for specialized training to better identify subtle forms of maltreatment like emotional abuse and neglect. However, little is known about the linkages between degree education, professional certificates, and the recognition of different subtypes of child abuse.
In this paper, we aim to explore the associations between levels of social work education, professional certificates, and the recognition of child maltreatment using China as a case study. We utilized data from the 2019 China Social Work Longitudinal Study (CSWLS) for the analyses. In addition, we examined variations in the influences of social work education and professional certificates on recognizing different subtypes of child maltreatment and possible underlying mechanisms.
Ensuring the quality of child protection services, including social workers’ ability to recognize child maltreatment, is crucial for protecting children's rights both in China and worldwide. By carefully examining the influences of degree education and professional certificate on the recognition of child maltreatment and its subtypes, our paper contributes to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying the recognition of child maltreatment and the nuanced differences in recognizing its various dimensions. Furthermore, our research provides data-based recommendations to enhance child protection services in countries with limited social work resources, where increasing the effectiveness of current approaches is essential to enhance professionals’capabilities of child protection. Our findings also shed light on practice in developed countries regarding possible directions for their future social work education reformation in keep improving the quality of child protection services.
Child Maltreatment and Variations in Recognition
Child maltreatment is a widespread public health problem that includes four widely recognized subtypes: physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect (Karadag et al., 2015). Among these subtypes, child neglect is the most common form (59%), followed by physical and sexual abuse (19% each), and emotional abuse (5%) (Tran & Goyal, 2010). Recognizing child maltreatment is challenging due to the variety of abuse forms, subtlety of signs, reluctance of children to disclose, social worker biases, and inconsistent training, leading to underreported or missed cases (Dubowitz et al., 2011; McTavish et al., 2020; Shaffer et al., 2008). Past research found significant variations in the recognition of different subtypes of child abuse. Social work professionals are more likely to detect sexual abuse and physical abuse relative to emotional abuse (Bruyninckx et al., 2021; Feng & Levine, 2005). Research in Canada has suggested that social workers tended to underestimate child neglect, despite its high prevalence (Tufford et al., 2015).
The overlooking of emotional abuse or neglect may relate to the ambiguous and uncertain nature of their indicators. For example, in comparison to physical and sexual maltreatment which usually involves definitive actions, child neglect involves acts of omission and the absence of visible injury, limiting quick and accurate assessments (Besharov, 1994; Kenny & McEachern, 2002; Tufford et al., 2015).
Variations in recognizing different subtypes of child abuse also linked to social work professionals’ perceptions of the seriousness of the maltreatment, and their understanding of the harmfulness or motivation behind a misbehavior (Fraser et al., 2010; O’Toole et al., 1993). Professionals are more likely to identify sexual abuse due to its strong violation of social morals and high level of violence, which is usually considered the most severe form of abuse (O’Toole et al., 1993; Vanderfaeillie et al., 2018). In contrast, professionals are less inclined to perceive emotional abuse as equally severe due to its uncertain intent to harm, thereby reducing their perceived necessity of intervention (O’Toole et al., 1993; Tran & Goyal, 2010; Vanderfaeillie et al., 2018). In the case of child neglect, professionals may feel powerless and lack of confidence in recognizing it, often viewing it as an ongoing rather than an immediate safety concern (Horwath, 2005).
Past research has shown that demographic characteristics such as gender, age, marital status, and parenthood are associated with the recognition of child maltreatment. For instance, Xu et al. (2021) and Vanderfaeillie et al. (2018) demonstrated that age, gender, marital status, and parenthood significantly impact professionals’ decisions in assessing and reporting child physical abuse. Furthermore, Fraser et al. (2010) and Karadag et al. (2015) found that educational background significantly influences the recognition of different maltreatment types. Social workers who have participated in more professional training sessions or witnessed more incidents of child maltreatment tend to demonstrate better recognition of such issues (Berliner & Conte, 1995; Ling et al., 2023). Additionally, a higher professional identity, a stronger sense of calling, or greater autonomy in daily work have been linked to improved work performance and may enhance social workers’ ability to recognize child maltreatment (Duffy et al., 2013; Zapf et al., 2001).
Social Work Education and the Education–Practice Disconnection
Recognizing child maltreatment requires professionals to understand the characteristics of different subtypes of child maltreatment and their consequences, especially knowledge about the less well-known subtypes and the vague features of possible indicators. Professional education plays a critical role in helping professionals gain the knowledge and skills needed to identify child maltreatment. Several studies have showed positive associations between social work education and child maltreatment recognition (Tufford et al., 2015; Zellman, 1990). In particular, Tufford et al. (2015) found that social work degree education informed students about the prevalence of child abuse and provided critical knowledge to note suspicions of potential child neglect. Social work education also enhanced students’ confidence and feelings of professional competency, aiding in effective decision-making when recognizing child abuse (Gewirtz-Meydan et al., 2017; Tufford, 2016).
While social work education shows positive correlations with the recognition of child maltreatment, existing studies also point to a general dissonance between social work education and the practical knowledge needed to identify and handle child abuse in daily social work practices. Research in the United States has criticized social work education for a lack of connection with actual field practices, while heavily relying on papers, group projects, and self-reflections in the classroom (Apgar, 2019; Flaherty et al., 2008). Similarly, research found that Swedish social work education was characterized by a generalist nature of course settings, which overlooked the specific knowledge required for child protection practices (Gilbert et al., 2011, p. 104).
China restored its social work education in the 1980s to train social workers in order to address emerging social welfare crises (Law & Gu, 2008; Wang & Yuen-Tsang, 2009). After two decades of rapid development, China had 266 Social Work Bachelor's Degree programs and 61 Master's Degree programs by 2013 (Guo et al., 2014). While such a rapid development of social work education has provided large numbers of students with essential knowledge of the profession, studies have found discrepancies between Chinese social work education and its ability to meet societal expectations. For example, Wang et al. (2019) showed that due to a disconnect between Western theoretical knowledge of social work and its practical application within the Chinese context, Chinese social work education and its curriculum design failed to adequately guide students in practices. Similarly, Li et al. (2017) reported that Chinese social work graduates did not demonstrate higher levels of competence or commitment to the profession when compared with their co-workers with no formal social work education.
The disconnection between Chinese social work education and daily practices may be partly attributed to the discipline's development history and the typical departmental personnel composition. Given the relatively short period of development, many faculty members of Chinese social work departments were trained in disciplines with a strong theoretical focus, such as sociology, psychology, or public administration, and possess relatively weak social work practice experiences (Guo & Tsui, 2010). Additionally, departments tend to categorize instructors into distinct branches of research versus practice, generating a notable disparity between theoretical and practical trainings and an insufficient emphasis on the professional practice (He & Liu, 2020).
One aspect of such insufficient emphasis on professional practice is a general lack of child protection content within Chinese social work education curriculum. Only 24% of the Master's programs offered any child-related specialized areas, and only 9% included compulsory child-related courses (Liu, 2021). As a result, social work education in China largely fails to deliver the knowledge and tools needed for child protection, including knowledge about child maltreatment and the uncertain nature of possible indicators. This significantly lags behind the rapid advancement of child protection policies and legislation in practice.
Social Work Certificate and a Close Connection to Practice
While past studies showed a lack of connection between social work education and actual field practices, existing research points to a close relationship between social work certificates and practices, in particular the alignment between licensure examinations and the competencies required for professional practices. For example, Thyer (2011) emphasized the importance of the Licensed Clinical Social Worker (LCSW) examination for social work graduates seeking the highest level of certificate. Apgar (2019) found that licensure examinations primarily assess the practical knowledge and skills directly related to the tasks that social workers would perform on the job, making the examination extremely helpful in guiding future social work professionals. This presents a stark contrast to social work education, which has a greater focus on values, theories, or cognitive processing. There is an ongoing discussion aimed at reforming social work education to be more practice-oriented, in order to facilitate a more direct path to social work certificate (Apgar & Luquet, 2023; Morrow, 2023; Thyer, 2011).
China did not have any social work certificate program until 2006, when the Ministry of Civil Affairs started to implement a national standard examination to grant social work licensures (Li et al., 2017). Unlike countries such as the U.S. or Australia, where possessing a degree in social work is one of the prerequisites for applying for a social work certificate (Australian Association of Social Workers, n.d.; National Association of Social Workers, n.d.), a social work degree is not a prerequisite for participating in the social work examination in China. Professionals in teaching, community service, or public health are considered to have relevant work experiences and are encouraged to participate in the licensure exam. This may be partly due to the relatively late establishment of the discipline of social work and the high demand for social workers, especially in rural and underdeveloped areas. Given a continuous shortage of social workers in China, the authorities were trying to attract as many certificate applicants as possible by allowing those without formal social work education into the discipline to meet the urgent need for social services (Li et al., 2017; Meng et al. 2019; Niu & Haugen, 2019). China's social work certification system has greatly contributed to the professionalization of social workers and enhanced both the competency and self-identity of the new generation of Chinese social workers (Xiong & Wang, 2007; Zeng et al., 2019).
One important characteristic of China's social work certification system is that the test content and guidance manuals are constantly updated to align with legislative and policy modifications (Qin & Li, 2023). For example, in 2014, China launched mandatory reporting requirements to supplement its existing child protection efforts (Supreme People's Court, 2014), emphasizing the obligations for professionals to report child abuse once they recognized any possible occurrence. Laws and social policies related to child protection evolved rapidly thereafter, including the introduction of the Anti-Domestic Violence Law in 2016 (National People's Congress, 2016), the issuance of Joint Opinions on Establishing Mandatory Reporting System in 2020 (Supreme People's Court et al., 2020), and the revision of Minors Protection Law in 2021 (National People's Congress, 2021).
Associated with these legal and policy changes in child protection, the national guidance for the social work certificate examination not only expanded its coverage of child protection-related content, such as the legal definition of child maltreatment and the mandatory reporting duty for social workers, but also dedicated specific chapters in subsequent years to better reflect the most up-to-date needs in social work practices. For example, the inclusion of the Anti-Domestic Violence Law as a new chapter in 2016, and the details of the revision of Minors’ Protection Law in 2022 (National Social Work Professional Level Examination Textbook Editorial Committee, 2016, 2022). Because relatively few courses covered child protection content in China's current social work education curricula, the knowledge of child maltreatment and child protection detailed in the examination manuals serves as invaluable resource in meeting the needs of daily practices among future child protection professionals. In particular, knowledge regarding child neglect, mental abuse, or related obscure indicators may be extremely helpful for successful recognition, given the inherently uncertain and ambiguous nature of these types of maltreatment and a general lack of awareness. Xu et al. (2021) found that possessing a social work certificate significantly increases the likelihood of recognizing suspected child abuse, highlighting the potential association between professional knowledge and practice experience.
The Present Study
In sum, there is a lack of comparative research regarding the influences of social work education versus professional certificates on child maltreatment recognition or its subtypes. In this study, we aim to examine the associations between levels of social work education, professional certificates, and the recognition of child maltreatment, using China as a case study. Furthermore, we explore how social work education and professional certificates affect the recognition of different subtypes of child maltreatment and discuss possible mechanisms underlying the variations in recognition. We propose the following four hypotheses:
Method
Data and Sample
We used data from the 2019 Chinese Social Work Longitudinal Study (CSWLS) for this study. The CSWLS is the first nationwide cross-sectional study in China that focuses on the social work profession. It employed a multi-stage random sampling strategy, covering 979 social work agencies across 56 Chinese cities (Yuan et al., 2021). After excluding missing values, a total of 3,032 child social workers were included in this analysis.
Measures
Child Maltreatment and Its Four Subtypes. The CSWLS utilized a modified Chinese version of the Perception of Child Maltreatment Scale (PCMS) (Liu & Liu, 2017) to measure the recognition of child maltreatment. This version was translated from English, revised according to the Chinese sociocultural context, and tested among university students, demonstrating good validity and reliability, making it a suitable tool for measuring the recognition of child maltreatment in China. This inventory is a 16-item questionnaire with four subscales: physical abuse (six items, e.g., “punching or kicking”), sexual abuse (two items, e.g., “touching a child's private parts for sexual pleasure”), emotional abuse (four items, e.g., “verbally insulting the child's dignity”), and neglect (four items, e.g., “ignoring the child's feelings”). Respondents were asked to indicate their perception of each of the 16 items on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from not abuse (1) to definitely abuse (5). The level of recognition of subtypes of child maltreatment is the average score of items in each subscale, ranging from 1 to 5. The overall level of recognition of child maltreatment was computed by adding up all 16 items with scores ranging from 16 to 80. A higher score indicated better recognition of child maltreatment or a subtype of child maltreatment. Confirmative Factor Analysis showed acceptable model fit (CFI = 0.913, TLI = 0.894, RMSEA = 0.118, SRMR = 0.071). The child maltreatment scale demonstrated good reliability in this study. Cronbach's α were 0.875 for emotional abuse, 0.949 for physical abuse, 0.868 for neglect, 0.928 for sexual abuse, and 0.961 for the total scale.
Social Work Education. This variable measured the extent to which respondents had received education in the field of social work. It included four categories: respondents with no social work education (reference group), with junior college-level of social work education, with a bachelor's degree in social work, and with a master's degree or above in social work.
Social Work Certificate. The possession of a social work certificate was used as a measure of the respondents’ professional qualifications in social work. This variable consisted of three categories: respondents without a social work certificate (reference group), those with an assistant-level social work certificate, and those with an associate-level social work certificate.
Covariates. Variables measuring social workers’ socio-demographic characteristics were included as controls, including participants’ gender, age, ethnicity, hukou (household registration status), marital status, parental status, educational attainment, and if the respondent was living in a first-tier Chinese metropolitan, namely, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, or Shenzhen. Occupational-related variables were also included, such as sense of calling, work autonomy, professional identity, the total number of professional training sessions the respondent had in the past year, and the witness of child maltreatment.
The witnessing of child maltreatment was measured using the identical scale of child maltreatment recognition. Respondents were asked if they witnessed each of the 16 maltreatment scenarios (0 = no, 1 = yes). Scores were added up, ranging from 0 to 16. A higher score suggested more witnessing of child maltreatment.
Data Analysis
Analyses were performed using STATA Version 17.0. We began with descriptive statistics of the sample to provide a profile of the social workers in the study. Next, we performed bivariate analyses, including t-tests and Pearson correlations, to show the simple associations between sample socio-demographic and occupational characteristics and the recognition of child maltreatment and its four subtypes. We also conducted ANOVAs to present the association between different levels of social work education or professional certificates and the recognition of child maltreatment and its subtypes, followed by Tukey's post hoc tests. We continued with multiple regression models to examine the effects of social work education and social work certificates on social workers’ recognition of child maltreatment. Lastly, we used multiple regression models to further explore variations in the influences of social work education and social work certificates on the recognition of subtypes of child maltreatment.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 shows the characteristics of the sample. We observed a relatively high level of recognition of child maltreatment overall (M = 64.47 out of a possible 80, SD = 15.80). However, variations were observed in the recognition of different subtypes of child abuse. Social workers in the sample demonstrated higher levels of recognition of physical abuse (M = 4.21, SD = 1.07) and sexual abuse (M = 4.30, SD = 1.24). In contrast, the recognition of emotional abuse (M = 3.80, SD = 1.05) and neglect (M = 3.84, SD = 1.09) was comparatively lower.
Descriptive Statistics of Child Social Workers, CSWLS 2019.
More than half of the child social workers in the sample had no formal social work education (n = 1,794, 59.2%), likely due to the relatively late restoration of social work education in China. On the other hand, 34.3% (n = 1,039) of the sample had a bachelor's degree or higher in social work, indicating a certain level of professionalization in the field. This professionalization was further illustrated by a large proportion of the respondents holding professional certificates. Specifically, 38.7% (n = 1,172) had assistant-level social work certificates, and 14.1% (n = 428) had associate-level social work certificates.
Overall, 80.3% (n = 2,434) of the sample were women. The mean age of the participant was 29.91 years old (SD = 7.47). A large majority (n = 2,807, 92.6%) of the sample was the Han ethnic group. In total, 56.8% (n = 1,722) had urban household registration. Slightly over half of the participants were single (n = 1,719, 54.1%), and 36.4% (n = 1,105) reported having children. The participants were highly educated, with 65.4% (n = 1,981) holding a bachelor's degree or higher. In total, 19.2% (n = 581) lived in the biggest metropolitan areas in China, such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen. The participants reported relatively higher level of sense of calling (M = 4.24, SD = 0.58), and relatively lower level of work autonomy (M = 3.74, SD = 0.52) and professional identity (M = 3.59, SD = 1.11). On average, they received 3.68 times (SD = 4.47) of professional training sessions in the past year, and witnessed child maltreatment on 2.84 occasions (SD = 3.29).
Bivariate Analyses
Table 2 presents bivariate analyses between sample socio-demographic characteristics and the recognition of child maltreatment. Differences in the recognition of child maltreatment and its subtypes by gender, ethnicity, hukou, marital status, parenthood, and metropolitan residence were tested using independent sample t-tests. The effect size was calculated using Cohen's d. Women and the ethnic Han group reported significantly higher level of recognition of child maltreatment and certain subtypes, including physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect, but not the recognition of emotional abuse. Metropolitan residents showed higher recognition of child maltreatment and all its subtypes. Singles and childless social workers showed higher levels of emotional abuse recognition, but no significant differences in recognizing other subtypes of child maltreatment. We found a relatively small difference between gender, hukou, marital status, parenthood, metropolitan, and child maltreatment recognition (Cohen's d < 0.2). On the other hand, we found a medium size effect (Cohen's d > 0.2) for ethnicity. Please refer to Table 2 for further details.
Independent Sample t-Tests of Mean Differences Between Selected Socio-Demographic Variables and the Recognition of Child Maltreatment and its Subtypes, CSWLS 2019.
Note. aSingle also included divorced or widowed respondents.
Table 3 presents Pearson correlation analyses between age, education, occupational characteristics of the social workers, and the recognition of child maltreatment and its subtypes. Overall, we see noticeable but small relationships between the variables. Age showed a negative but small association with the recognition of emotional abuse. Higher educational attainment, higher levels of sense of calling, work autonomy, and professional identity were significantly associated with better recognition of child maltreatment and its subtypes. Professional trainings seem to only have limited relationships with child maltreatment recognition. A greater number of witnesses of child maltreatment were significantly associated with higher levels of recognition of child maltreatment and its subtypes. Please refer to Table 3 for further details.
Pearson Correlations Between Age, Education, Occupational Characteristics, and the Recognition of Child Maltreatment and Its Subtypes, CSWLS 2019.
Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Table 4 shows the results of the ANOVAs examining the mean differences between social work education, professional certificates, and the recognition of child maltreatment and its subtypes. We found significant group differences in the recognition of child maltreatment and all its subtypes among social workers with different levels of social work education. The test results also indicated significant differences in child maltreatment recognition and subtypes among those with different levels of professional certificates. Despite reaching statistical significance, the effect size of the ANOVAs, as measured by η2 showed that the differences in mean scores between the groups were relatively small.
Mean Differences of Recognition of Child Maltreatment and Its Subtypes by Social Work Education and Professional Certificate.
Note. SWE = social work education; SWC = social work certificate. Different superscripts indicate significant differences among the groups in the row from Tukey's post-hoc tests.
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Tukey's post hoc tests showed significant differences between social workers with no social work education and those with a Bachelor's degree in social work in recognizing most subtypes of child maltreatment (except neglect). However, the mean scores of those with junior college social work education were not significantly different from those with no social work education. On the other hand, the mean scores of child maltreatment recognition and its subtypes among those with assistant-level or associate-level professional certificates were significantly different from those with no certificate in most of the pairwise comparisons, except for the associate-level versus no certificate comparison in recognizing sexual abuse. Please refer to Table 4 for further details.
Multiple Regression Models
Multiple linear regression models were carried out to examine the effects of social work education and social work certificates on the recognition of child maltreatment. Model 1 is the baseline model where only socio-demographic and occupational characteristics were included. The results showed that women (B = 2.59, p < .001), younger people (B = −0.11, p < .05), the ethnic Han population (B = 3.50, p < .01), metropolitan residents (B = 1.70, p < .05), and people with higher sense of calling (B = 1.47, p < .01), work autonomy (B = 1.89, p < .01), or professional identity (B = 1.05, p < .001) were significantly more likely to recognize child maltreatment. Social workers who witnessed more child maltreatment occasions (B = 0.45, p < .001) were also significantly more likely to recognize any abuse.
We included variable social work education in Model 2 to test Hypothesis 1. Variable social work certificate was further included in Model 3 to test Hypothesis 2. The results of Model 2 revealed that, when controlling for social worker's socio-demographic and occupational characteristics, social work education did not show a significant effect on the recognition of child maltreatment. So we failed to accept our Hypothesis 1 regarding a positive association between social work education and higher level of child maltreatment recognition. In contrast, Model 3 showed significant and positive effect of assistant-level social work certificate (B = 1.42, p < .05) on child maltreatment recognition. There is no significant association between child maltreatment recognition and associate-level social work certificate. This partly confirms our Hypothesis 2 regarding a positive relationship between social work certificate and higher level of recognition of child maltreatment. Please see Table 5 for further details.
We continued to examine the effects of social work education and social work certificates on recognizing subtypes of child maltreatment, including physical abuse (Model 4), sexual abuse (Model 5), emotional abuse (Model 6), and neglect (Model 7), to test our Hypothesis 3 and 4. Similar to previous findings, social work education did not show a significant effect in Models 4–7. We were unable to accept our Hypothesis 3. Compared to individuals without social work education, professionals with social work education did not exhibit higher levels of recognition of different subtypes of child maltreatment.
We found varying effects of social work certificates on the recognition of different subtypes of child maltreatment. Model 6 showed that having an assistant-level (B = 0.17, p < .001) or associate-level (B = 0.19, p < .01) social work certificate had positive and significant effects on recognizing emotional abuse. Model 7 showed that assistant-level (B = 0.12, p < .05) social work certificate was positively and significantly associated with higher level of recognition of neglect. However, there was no significant association between social work certificates and the identification of physical abuse (Model 4) or sexual abuse (Model 5). So we can only partly accept our Hypothesis 4. The effects of social work certificates appear to vary by the specific subtypes of maltreatment. Compared to individuals without social work certificates, professionals with social work certificates demonstrated higher levels of recognition of emotional abuse and neglect, but not higher levels of recognition of physical abuse or sexual abuse. Please see Table 6 for further details.
Multiple Regression Analyses of Social Work Education and Social Work Certificate on the Recognition of Child Maltreatment.
Note. SWE = social work education; SWC = social work certificate.
Source. CSWLS2019.
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Multiple Regression Analyses of Social Work Education and Social Work Certificate on the Recognition of Four Subtypes of Child Maltreatment.
Note. SWE = social work education; SWC = social work certificate.
Source. CSWLS2019.
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Discussion and Applications to Practice
While past research showed positive correlations between social work education or social work certificates and the recognition of child maltreatment, limited studies have compared the effects of social work education versus social work certificates, particularly regarding their influences on recognizing different subtypes of child maltreatment. Using data from the CSWLS2019, this study examines the influences of social work education and social work certificate on the recognition of child maltreatment, paying attention to the variations in the effects of professional education or certification on recognizing subtypes of child maltreatment and underlying mechanisms. Contrary to existing research indicating a positive association between social work education and child maltreatment recognition (Nguyen et al., 2022), our analysis of contemporary Chinese social workers did not reveal any significant influence of social work education on recognizing child maltreatment or its subtypes.
Compared to the limited effects of social work education, we consistently observed positive associations between social work certificates and the recognition of child maltreatment. Individuals with assistant-level professional certificates demonstrated higher levels of recognition of child maltreatment compared to those without a professional certificate. Interestingly, we also see no association between associate level social work certificate and the recognition of child maltreatment. This may relate to the fact that social workers with assistant-level certificates are typically in the early stages of their careers, frequently engaging in frontline work, and possess a stronger motivation and sense of mission to learn and apply maltreatment recognition skills, as their career advancement and job performance are closely tied to these competencies.
Furthermore, we found variations in the influences of social work certificates in recognizing different subtypes of child abuse. Although the recognition of emotional abuse or neglect was at a relatively lower level than the recognition of physical or sexual abuse among all social workers, our models showed that individuals with assistant-level or associate-level social work certificates had higher scores in recognizing emotional abuse or neglect.
Social work education and social work certificate were two important indicators of the professionalization of social workers. Degree education and the certificate application process provide critical resources and opportunities for social workers to gain adequate knowledge and skills for daily practices, including improving their abilities to identify potential violations of children's rights. The lack of association between Chinese social work education and the recognition of child maltreatment may relate to the insufficient coverage of child protection content in the current curriculum of most Chinese social work education programs. As of December 2020, among 157 Chinese social work master's programs, only two specialized in child protection, only 4 of the total 45 compulsory courses in all MSW programs included child-related content, and even these courses were rarely updated based on most recent changes in child protection policies (Liu, 2021). In addition, most child-related social work courses focus on more general aspects of child and family service systems, and usually overlook content regarding the identification of child maltreatment. The insufficient coverage of specialized child protection knowledge in degree programs may be a major reason for the lack of effect of Chinese social work education on the recognition of child maltreatment. These findings echo the general versus specialized knowledge debate in the social work education literature, which argues that solely providing general knowledge in degree programs is insufficient in specialized child protection practices (Gilbert et al., 2011, p. 104). The ambiguous nature of child maltreatment requires specialized knowledge and skills for effective identification and intervention. The inadequate coverage of this specialized content in degree programs could lead to long-term consequences on child protection practices.
On the other hand, the higher levels of recognition of child maltreatment among Chinese social workers with professional certificates may be related to the extensive coverage of child protection content in social work certificate examinations, and regular updates following policy changes in the official guidance which extensively covers child social work and youth social work topics (National Social Work Professional Level Examination Textbook Editorial Committee, 2016, 2022). In fact, the detailed discussions on child maltreatment and children's rights protection were not only covered in chapters dedicated to child and youth social work, but were also integrated into other specialized content on women's rights, family social work, and school social work. The detailed theoretical and practical guidance, including annual updates reflecting the most recent policy and legislative changes in child protection, serve as invaluable resources given the relatively limited coverage of child protection content in degree programs. Although the assistant and associate social work certification exams do not include an interview component, they encompass both theoretical content and practical skills, including scenario-based judgment. Preparing for certificate examinations could provide crucial exposure to knowledge and skills for child maltreatment recognition, including a better understanding of the more obscure forms of emotional abuse and neglect. This may help explain the better recognition of the less well-known maltreatment subtypes among social workers with professional certificates.
There are certain limitations in our study. Ideally, the measure of child maltreatment recognition should incorporate information on the severity of the maltreatment. Unfortunately, the CSWLS2019 did not include a measure of severity. Future research that incorporates severity information into the analysis would provide a more nuanced understanding of the complexity and multidimensional nature of the recognition of child maltreatment, and contribute to more effective intervention practices. The data in this study does not specify whether the educational background of the samples includes specialized child protection modules, which is a limitation. It is hoped that future research will focus on whether social workers can better identify child maltreatment behaviors when child protection knowledge is included in their education. In addition, the current study relied on cross-sectional data and was therefore unable to identify causal linkages between social work education, social work certificate, and child maltreatment recognition. Future research with a longitudinal data design, including utilizing upcoming panels of the CSWLS, could help establish a more in-depth examination of the causal relationship over time.
In conclusion, this study investigated the varying influences of different levels of social work education or professional certificates on the recognition of child maltreatment and its subtypes among social workers in contemporary China. While the study found no association between social work degree education and child maltreatment recognition, it highlighted the persistent importance of social work certificates for a higher level of recognition of child maltreatment, including the improved identification of emotional abuse and neglect, which were more difficult to identify among all social workers. We argue that such varying effects of social work education versus social work certificate may be due to an overall lack of child social work content in degree programs, compared to the extensive coverage of child protection in certificate exams that reflects practical needs and policy changes.
To our knowledge, this is the first study to compare the effects of professional education and certificate on child maltreatment while emphasizing their varying influences on identifying subtypes of child abuse. It sheds light on the ongoing debate in many countries regarding whether social work degree education should be more general or more focused (Gilbert et al., 2011, p. 104; Morrow, 2023). This study provides first-hand evidence that a lack of specific knowledge in social work education may hinder not only effective child protection services, but also other specialized services alike. The disconnect between social work education and the recognition of child maltreatment underscores a critical issue where fundamental social work training programs fail to equip graduates with professional-level child protection knowledge. The lack of influences of social work degree programs on recognizing child maltreatment highlights an urgent need for a practice-oriented reorganization of social work degree curricula, which should serve as primary educational channels for future social workers.
This practice-oriented curriculum reconstruction could be achieved through three approaches. Firstly, there should be an extensive coverage of child protection knowledge in the updated curriculum. Such knowledge should not only reflect the needs in the daily child protection practices, but also be regularly updated to reflect most recent legislative changes. Secondly, social work degree programs should place additional emphasis on professional training through internship programs. This allows students to gain hands-on experience and apply theoretical knowledge in real-world settings. Child protection experts with strong practice experience should be actively involved in the curriculum planning process to ensure a balance between course materials and practical needs. Lastly, professional social worker training programs available in the private sector could serve as a valuable complement to the university degree programs. By promoting close collaboration between universities and the private sector, well-designed child protection modules provided by the market or various social work institutes can offer additional learning channels to help meet the challenges of child protection in China's rapidly evolving landscape.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Shanghai Philosophy and Social Sciences Young Scholars Project, Shanghai Pujiang Program (grant numbers 2020ESH004, 2021PJC030).
