Applying the theory of planned behaviour to analyse the employment intentions of eastern Chinese vocational-school students seeking work in western China: A survey of six provinces

Abstract

Background

In many countries, talent migration undermines the social and economic strengths of regional communities. Thus, globalisation has made employment a focal point of concern worldwide.

Objective

This study used a framework based on the theory of planned behaviour to examine Eastern Chinese vocational-school students’ intentions to work in Western China.

Methods

Data were collected from 2215 students at 12 vocational schools in Eastern China. The variables employment attitude (ATT), subjective norms (SNs) and perceived behavioural control (PBC) were analysed as predictors of employment intention (EI).

Results

Structural equation modelling indicated that ATT, SNs and PBC all had significant effects on predicting EI. However, SNs’ moderating role in the relationship between ATT and EI was not significant.

Conclusions

ATT, SNs and PBC were significant predictors of EI; however, PBC's predictive role was negative. In addition to the direct effects, the findings also identified SNs’ moderating role, which is consistent with existing research on SNs’ important role in predicting career choice and EI.

Keywords

theory of planned behaviour vocational education employment intention attitude perceived behaviour control subjective norms

Introduction

Given the rapid societal changes that have occurred in the last few decades, since the beginning of the twenty-first century, people worldwide have been faced with different types of uncertainty, while globalisation has become an important topic of discussion across numerous countries. Particularly, the topic of workers’ intention to relocate to work in non-metropolitan regions is important, especially given the global phenomenon of workers relocating to metropolitan centres. In many countries, talent migration undermines the social and economic strengths of regional communities, as population movement is a key factor affecting employment. Specifically, the mobility of skilled personnel results in enormous benefits, costs, and risks to individuals, institutions and countries.¹ Therefore, we should examine the problems related to vocational-school students’ employment mobility. Eastern China is relatively well developed, whereas the western region is still developing. Moreover, with changes to its industrial structure, Western China is undergoing a surge of new development opportunities. However, if the eastern region's inhabitants are unaware of the advantages of the western region or do not intend to employ talent from non-metropolitan regions, policies aimed at attracting talent may be ineffective. Therefore, understanding the characteristics and rationale of metropolitan vocational-school students’ intention to work in non-metropolitan areas could shed light on a path to solving this issue.

First, we must interpret what employment intention (EI) is and why it is important to consider Eastern Chinese vocational-school students’ intention to work in Western China. EI (i.e., employment willingness) comprises a proactive inclination in career choice, representing an individual's plans and expectations regarding employment. It reflects the individual's subjective feelings, value judgments and attitudinal tendencies towards their future career, thus forming a crucial component of employment and career values.² Due to the different perspectives of researchers investigating this topic, there are different conceptualisations of EI. According to Ajzen, EI comprises the motivation required to engage in a particular job: the more an individual desires to pursue a specific occupation, the more likely they are to take actual employment actions.³ This is rooted in the rationale that human behaviour is best predicted by people's intentions to engage in (or refrain from) relevant behaviours. Eastern Chinese vocational-school students’ intention to seek employment in Western China depends on the following antecedents: the more favourable their views on employment in the western region and the greater the perceived social pressure from their close relations, the more likely they are to develop EI.

Second, the factors affecting vocational-school students’ EI to work in Western China are diverse. These factors can be divided into social and personal categories. Social factors are derived from the constantly changing economic and sociocultural environment. In China, with the gradual economic rise of the western region, many employment and entrepreneurship opportunities are emerging in the area; however, few students in the eastern region are willing to relocate to the western region in search of said opportunities. This may be because there are many ethnic groups in the western region, which means that this region exhibits diverse ecological and cultural differences with the eastern region.⁴ Another possible reason for this is that the inhabitants of the eastern region have a biased perception of Western Chinese culture. Prior studies have examined the cultural factors influencing these biases but they have been limited to studying ethnic minorities’ careers and cultural specificities.⁵ Many individuals in the western region have regional biases influenced by cognitive representations, social learning and socialisation reinforcement.⁶ While this deserves in-depth research in future studies, it is not the main objective of the present study.

Meanwhile, social factors consist of resistance to and interaction with organisations, provide references to practices and processes and are influenced by families, groups and schools. From the family and reference-group perspectives, parental influence, peers, friends, previous work experience, role models and social networks influence EI.⁷ In China, family and relationship factors are prominent, with family responsibilities and financial pressure being motivating factors for EI.⁸ Regarding the geographical choice of EI, about half of advanced vocational-school students choose to be employed in enterprises in cities near their hometown, reflecting their attachment to their hometowns and parents.⁹ Economic, cultural, organisational and social resources in the family background influence vocational-school students’ employment, to a certain extent.¹⁰ Additionally, education can influence people's behaviour and enable them to learn skills and acquire knowledge.¹¹ Moreover, factors such as school curricula and entrepreneurship education can also influence EI.¹² Students with higher human capital are more likely to choose to stay in big cities due to these environments’ increased job opportunities, higher demand for talent, and better development space; meanwhile, college students with low human capital and family economic advantages are often forced to work in remote areas because of the increased difficulty of finding employment in big cities.¹³ Personal factors in this process include personality and adaptability. Personal characteristics (e.g., positive self-concept, adaptability, self-reliance, ambition, motivation to learn, proactiveness, optimism, self-efficacy, personality traits, tenacity and future self-continuity) influence EI and determine how individuals explore career paths.^14–17 A previous study on higher-education students’ EI showed that they believed that the main factors affecting employment are tied to their individual characteristics.¹⁸

The influence model of EI originated from unidimensional theory (according to which attitude determines intention, with the most representative framework being multi-attribute attitude theory), dualism (according to which attitude and subjective norms determine intention, with the most representative framework being the theory of reasoned action) and the theory of planned behaviour (TPB).¹⁹ Both unidimensional and bidimensional theories have limitations because they only consider a narrow range of influencing factors and fail to account for external factors (e.g., economic conditions, resources and time). Meanwhile, TPB considers the influence of both individual and social factors. Therefore, this study uses the theoretical framework of the TPB as the foundation for discussing the factors influencing Eastern Chinese vocational-school students’ EI to work in Western China.

Theories and hypotheses

Several theories have explored the factors that influence EI, with the TPB being the most widespread worldwide.³ Several researchers have examined the utility of TPB in the field of career studies, while some scholars have suggested that TPB needs to be examined and extended within the context of career choice and development.^20,21 The TPB is a popular and relevant tool because it provides a framework for developing an integrative psychological model for EI's formation.²² Based on the theoretical framework of the TPB, this study investigates the EI of Eastern Chinese vocational-school students seeking employment in Western China.

Ajzen's TPB postulates that the direct antecedent of a person's behaviour is the individual's intention to perform such behaviour.³ The intention of a given action is influenced by three related independent structures: favourable or unfavourable evaluation of the action by the individual (attitude [ATT]), the individual's perceived social pressure for the behaviour (subjective norms [SNs]), and the individual's confidence in their ability to successfully perform the behaviour (perceived behavioural control [PBC]). In this regard, Azjen remarked, “The relative importance of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control in predicting intentions may vary from behaviour to behaviour and from situation to situation”.³ TPB studies on job-seeking and career choice generally support these three core structures as predictors of intention. In a 2001 study, Azjen found that individuals in different countries exhibited different relative weights for TPB factors such as ATT and SNs, while the weights of these predictors varied according to individuals’ behaviour.²³ Some researchers have found that jobseekers’ ATT and SNs (but not PBC) are important predictors of job-seeking intentions for temporary employment.²¹ Other studies have found that SNs have a stronger influence on intention in collectivist cultures, whereas ATT is more important in individualist cultures, while personal norms directly influence behaviour.²⁴ Similarly, researchers have highlighted the role of the social context, especially SNs.²⁵ PBC's impact has been investigated by studies that argue for both its positive²⁶ and negative effects²⁷ on EI. Additionally, research has found positive relationships between ATT and EI, as well as between PBC and EI, while no such relationship has been found between SNs and EI.²⁸ This indicates that these three factors play different roles across research contexts. Therefore, this study hypothesises that all three factors have an impact on Eastern Chinese vocational-school students’ intention to seek employment in Western China.

Previous studies have confirmed several potential factors that affect career choices in a more traditional sense.^29,30 However, recent studies on vocational-school students’ EI have scarcely examined the migration flow from the developed eastern region to the developing western region. To expand the field of EI research, it is necessary to deploy the TPB as a theoretical basis to better explore individuals’ EI migrating from Eastern to Western China.

The original TPB model showed that ATT, SNs and PBC were all directly related to behavioural intention. However, some researchers have stated that ATT is influenced by SNs. According to Super's life-span life-space theory, vocational-school students are in the exploratory stage of career development (14–24 years old), in which the main developmental task is to gather specific information about themselves and the employment landscape.³¹ Because career-choice behaviour is complex and most students have relatively little work experience, some of the main sources they rely on for information about specific careers include their parents, teachers and peers. Presumably, social pressure and the opinions of their close relations can have a significant impact on this group's career choices. Relevant to this context, Bandura's sociological theory emphasises the importance of observing and modelling others’ behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions.³² Therefore, this study suggests that ATT towards employment in Western China moderates SNs’ impact on the EI of working in Western China. Hypotheses 1 and 2 are formulated accordingly:

Hypothesis 1: ATT, SNs and PBC can predict Eastern Chinese vocational-school students’ EI to work in Western China.

Hypothesis 2: SNs have a moderating effect on ATTs and EI to work in Western China.

Method

Data sources

Eastern China comprises 11 provinces, while this study selected 12 vocational schools in six provinces: Liaoning, known for its significant population outflow; Shandong, with a large population; Beijing, representing the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region; Zhejiang, representing the Yangtze River Delta; Fujian, which provides targeted support to Western China; and Guangdong, representing the Pearl River Delta, known for its considerable population inflow. The selection of vocational-school students for this study was based on several reasons: first, due to the education system's promotion mechanism for vocational education, vocational-school students are at a critical decision-making stage, as they are faced with the choice of whether to pursue further education or enter the workforce; second, vocational education is characterised by localisation, while, during the enrolment process, there are opportunities for recruitment from the western regions or across provincial borders, thereby providing more opportunities for cultural exposure and facilitating discussions from a cultural perspective; third, vocational-school students exhibit high rates of job mobility after employment, thus aligning with the study's focus; finally, vocational-school students often have lower career capabilities and may feel uncertain about their future, thus highlighting the importance of researching EI. The study subjects were recruited via convenience sampling. Data were collected through paper-based and online questionnaires. The questionnaires were primarily distributed by class coordinators who asked the students to complete them carefully, thereby ensuring a reasonable quality of responses. A total of 2539 questionnaires were collected, of which 2215 were deemed valid, resulting in an effective response rate of 87%. The average age of the students ranged from 18 to 23 years, with a standard deviation of 1.67 years. The distribution of specific population information is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Participants’ characteristics.

Project	Features	N	Percentage	Project	Features	Number	Percentage
Provincial capital or municipality	Yes	440	19.9	Gender	Male	1305	59.5
Provincial capital or municipality	No	1743	78.7	Gender	Female	889	40.5
Family location	City	456	20.9	Special admissions from the Western region	Yes	519	23.4
	Town	485	22.2	Special admissions from the Western region	No	1696	76.6
	Countryside	1241	56.9	Majors	Agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery	38	1.7
Province or municipality of the school	Beijing	413	18.6		Resources and environmental Security	11	0.5
	Fujian	427	19.3		Equipment manufacturing	798	36.0
	Guangdong	156	7.0		Transportation	25	1.1
	Shandong	575	26.0		Electronic and information engineering	267	12.1
	Liaoning	592	26.7		Finance and business	436	19.7
	Zhejiang	52	2.3		Tourism	147	6.6
					Arts	223	10.1
Only child	Yes	791	36.4		Education	206	9.3
Only child	No	1380	63.6		Public administration	41	1.9

Variable measurement

Ajzen noted that there is no standard format for the TPB because measurement items must be tailored to different behaviours and populations. However, when formulating measures for EI, ATT, SNs and PBC, Ajzen emphasised the requirement of compatibility, arguing that all measures of these four constructs must be defined and measured using the same behavioural elements.³³ Therefore, we studied the dimensions of the four constructs proposed by Ajzen, customised the project to fit the target behaviour of this study (employment in Western China), and revised the questionnaire based on the TPB, according to Wang (2014). This study's 57-item questionnaire was divided into four subscales: EI (items 1–7), ATT (items 8–25), SNs (items 26–37) and PBC (38–46). The remaining 11 questions pertain to the student's basic information. The items were scored on a five-point scale, 1 = “strongly disagree”, 2 = “somewhat disagree”, 3 = “unclear”, 4 = “somewhat agree”, and 5 = “strongly agree”. The principal component factor analysis of the EI subscale was carried out using maximum variance rotation. The results showed that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value was 0.96, while the result of Bartlett's spherical test was significant (p < 0.001), indicating that the data were suitable for factor analysis, with an overall interpretation rate of 70.23%, demonstrating the validity of the test items.

EI

In this study, the intention to relocate to Western China for employment was defined as the subjective probability of wanting to move there for work. Questions 1–3 were derived from a questionnaire on environmentally friendly behaviour developed by Han, while questions 4–7 used descriptive language to assess the degree of students’ intention to seek employment in Western China.¹³ Cronbach's coefficient for this subscale was 0.92. The results of confirmatory factor analysis showed that the subscale's construct validity was good (χ²/df = 8.76, comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.99, normed fit index [NFI] = 0.99, incremental fit index [IFI] = 0.99, Tucker-Lewis index [TLI] = 0.98, root mean square error of the approximation [RMSEA] = 0.05).

ATT

The ATT subscale consisted of 18 items. Following Hooft et al.,³⁴ this subscale served as an individual evaluation of ATT, comprising two levels: emotional evaluation (the individual's likes and dislikes) and cognitive evaluation (individuals’ rational thinking and judgment of employment). The subscale included two dimensions: emotional evaluation (like/pleasant/hate/painful) for questions 8–12 and instrumental evaluation (valuable/usefulness/harmful) for questions 13–25. Of these, question 21 was an attention check that stated, “Please select option 4 for this question”. If respondents did not select option 4, their questionnaire was deemed invalid. The other attention checks followed the same method. The Cronbach's coefficient for this subscale was 0.96. The results of confirmatory factor analysis showed that the subscale's construct validity was good (χ²/df = 13.32, CFI = 0.96, NFI = 0.96, IFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.07).

SNs

The SNs subscale consisted of 12 items. SNs comprise external pressures, including the influence of role models, parents, friends, moral norms and culture. Following Wang,³⁵ questions 26–30 focus on the impact of the close relations’ norms on students’ decisions to work, while questions 31–37 focus on the impact of public ethics norms. A higher SN score indicated a perception of elevated social pressure from external sources, whereas lower SN indicated a perception of diminished social pressure from external sources. This subscale exhibited a Cronbach's coefficient of 0.89. The results of confirmatory factor analysis showed that the subscale's construct validity was good (χ²/df = 14.06, CFI = 0.97, NFI = 0.96, IFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.07).

PBC

The PBC subscale consisted of nine items. In this study, PBC refers to external objective factors that affected Eastern Chinese vocational-school students’ EI to work in Western China. Both internal and external beliefs were measured.³⁶ Internal control refers to the confidence that an individual has in realising a certain behaviour, whereas external control refers to the external factors perceived to influence said behaviour. Following Wang,³⁷ questions 38–40 were used to measure the influence of vocational-school students’ individual abilities on their employment in the Western region, while questions 41–46 were used to measure the influence of external objective factors. Question 43 was an attention check. Cronbach's coefficient for this subscale was 0.92. The results of confirmatory factor analysis showed that the subscale's construct validity was good (χ²/df = 13.11, CFI = 0.99, NFI = 0.99, IFI = 0.99, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.07).

Results

Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations, reliabilities and correlations between the variables. As expected, ATT, SN and PBC were significantly positively related to EI.

Table 2.

Means, standard deviation, reliability, and correlations among variables.

Variable	M	SD	1	2	3	4
1. EI	2.63	0.82	0.92	—
2. ATT	2.92	0.73	0.68**	0.96	—
3. SNs	3.15	0.72	0.12**	0.18**	0.89	—
4. PBC	3.29	0.84	0.02	0.13**	0.65**	0.92

Note: N = 2215. Cronbach's alpha coefficients are in boldface; ** p < 0.01. Abbreviations: EI = employment intention; ATT = employment attitude; SNs = subjective norms; PBC = perceived behavioural control.

As this study developed the measures used, it was necessary to assess the construct validity to ensure adequate psychometric characteristics. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the convergent and discriminant validity of the measures.

To examine and confirm the convergent and discriminant validity of each variable, we performed confirmatory factor analysis on 2215 data sets using Lisrel 8.54 software. The results of the factor analysis showed that the factor loadings and T-value of each factor in the four-factor model reached a significance level of 0.05, while there was no inappropriate solution, indicating that this study's constructs had good convergent validity. Simultaneously, a model comparison method was used to examine the discriminant validity of each variable. As shown in Table 3, compared with the other seven models, the results of the four-factor model showed that the CFI and NFI were > .90, which best fit the actual data (χ² = 30312.53, df = 896, NFI = 0.92, CFI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.12). The RMSEA estimate was equal to the recommended maximum value of 0.08, indicating a good fit between the measurement model and the data. This shows that this study's four variables are distinct and have good discriminative validity.

Table 3.

Confirmatory factor analysis results.

Model	χ²	df	NFI	CFI	RMSEA
1. Benchmark model (four factors)	30312.53	896	0.92	0.92	0.12
2. Three-factor model 1	43377.98	899	0.89	0.90	0.15
3. Three-factor model 2	56635.83	899	0.87	0.88	0.17
4. Three-factor model 3	56512.70	899	0.87	0.88	0.17
5. Three-factor model 4	55027.46	899	0.87	0.88	0.16
6. Three-factor model 5	56062.26	899	0.87	0.88	0.17
7. Three-factor model 6	36140.00	899	0.90	0.91	0.13
8. Single-factor model	109910.66	902	0.81	0.82	0.23

Note: The benchmark model includes four factors: EI, ATT, PBC and SNs.

Three-factor model 1: Based on the benchmark model, EI and ATT were combined into one factor.

Three-factor model 2: Based on the benchmark model, EI and SN were combined into one factor.

Three-factor model 3: On the benchmark model, EI and PBC were combined into one factor.

Three-factor model 4: On the benchmark model, ATT and SN were combined into one factor.

Three-factor model 5: Based on the benchmark model, ATT and PBC were combined into a single factor.

Three-factor model 6: On the benchmark model, SN and PBC were combined into one factor.

Single-factor model: Combined the four variables into one factor.

To test Hypothesis 1, the data were modelled using a structural equation with Mplus7.0 software. Controlling for the province where the school is located, the students’ place of origin, the type of college, whether the school admits students from Western China, different colleges, different majors and whether the student is the only child, the results showed that PBC had a significant negative effect on EI (β = −0.20, p < 0.01), while ATT and SNs had a significant positive effect on EI (β = 1.34, p < 0.001; β = 0.26, p < 0.01), as shown in Figure 1. Thus, Hypothesis 1 is supported.

Figure 1.

Effects of SN, ATT and PBC on EI.

Hypothesis 2 proposed that SNs play a moderating role in the relationship between ATT and EI. The data were modelled using Mplus7.0 software. Controlling for the province where the school is located, the students’ place of origin, the type of college, whether the school accepts students from Western China, different colleges, different majors and whether the student is the only child, the results showed that the interaction between ATT and PBC had a significant positive effect on EI (β = 0.06, p < 0.001), as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

SNs’ moderating effect in the relationship between ATT and EI.

To confirm whether SNs’ moderating effect on the relationship between ATT and EI was in line with the original expectation, we referred to Aiken and West³⁷ and substituted the value of one standard deviation into the regression model to perform a simple slope analysis and plot (see Figure 2). The results showed a strong positive correlation between ATT and EI (simple slope = 0.56, p < 0.001) in the context of a higher SN score. In contrast, in the context of a lower SN score, the positive relationship between EI and ATT was weaker (simple slope = 0.47, p < 0.001), as shown in Figure 3. Thus, Hypothesis 2 is supported.

Figure 3.

SNs’ moderating effect in the relationship between ATT and EI.

Discussion

The results showed that ATT, SN and PBC were all significant predictors of EI, although the predictive role of PBC was negative. In addition to the direct effect, the results also revealed SNs’ moderating effect, which is consistent with existing research on SNs’ important role in predicting career choice and EI.²⁰

These findings suggest that SNs are a better predictor of EI, compared with ATT. This is consistent with previous studies emphasising SNs’ influence on EI.^21,24,25 This suggests that vocational-school students tend to view their close relations (e.g., parents, teachers and peers) as having a significant impact on their career choice. This is also consistent with family-centric Chinese culture. Within this context, family members’ influence on career decision-making has become a significant topic of scholarly research.³⁸ Within the family context, parents are a primary influence, while their expectations for their children's career development comprise one of the most important factors in students’ career decisions.³⁹ In traditional Chinese culture, students exhibit a strong attachment to their families; thus, they perceive geographical distance as a loss of parental care, while they tend to prioritise familial obligations. The desire to maintain close relationships with family members and peers influences Chinese students’ career choices, whereas the aggregate effect of the family can discourage students from pursuing distant opportunities. The coexistence of dependence on the family and the pursuit of independent thought is a characteristic of students at this developmental stage. Meanwhile, conformity influences the formation of EI in Western China,⁴⁰ which is reflected in SNs’ impact on EI, as in this context, social discourse and the attitudes of surrounding individuals can significantly affect students’ employment aspirations.

This study shows that ATT is a stronger predictor of EI, indicating that the ATT of Eastern Chinese vocational-school students is the main factor affecting their employment in Western China. This result is consistent with previous studies that demonstrated ATT's impact on EI.^21,24,28 Therefore, future research should focus on students’ attitudes, particularly on how they are formed. Vocational-school students who perceive Western China as offering high salaries and job security are more inclined to work in that region. Instrumental values and emotional aspirations are the main drivers of employment-seeking behaviour. Thus, vocational students’ attitude towards working in Western China may be the most proximate internal psychological factor to EI, while other factors may influence these students’ attitude towards working in Western China, which, in turn, would generate the corresponding EI. For instance, parents’ employment values can subtly influence their children's employment attitudes,⁴¹ while the positive or negative outcomes of cultural exposure can affect vocational-school students’ attitudes towards employment in Western China.⁴² If people consider the western region to be more conducive to their development, they will be more likely to choose to work there.

This study found a negative relationship between PBC and EI: the higher the PBC, the weaker the EI. Most studies examining PBC's impact on EI found either a significant effect^26,28 or no influence.²¹ However, only a few studies have indicated that PBC's moderating effect on the SNs–EI relationship is negative.²⁷ La Barbera and Azjen suggested that individuals are less likely to be subject to normative influences when they have high perceived control, which is consistent with the findings of the present study. If students consider employment in Western China as a behavioural goal, perceived individual ability factors and external objective factors will reduce their intention to participate in employment. This could be because they regard working in the western region as a “compromise”, while this “compromised choice” shows that students consider more factors. Gottfredson's theory of career ambition proposes that the development of career aspirations is a narrowing process through which people gradually eliminate unacceptable options and establish a social space that they consider acceptable. Additionally, when faced with internal or external obstacles, people forgo their favourite choices to get opportunities that they do not like much but are more likely to get.⁴³

Implications

According to the results of this study, countermeasures and suggestions should be proposed from the perspectives of ATT, SNs and PBC to encourage Eastern Chinese vocational-school students to work in Western China.

Increasing cultural awareness and understanding

Vocational-school students’ attitudes towards working in Western China affect their EI vis-à-vis working in that region. Therefore, how to help students improve their knowledge and understanding of Western Chinese culture should be considered. First, to increase opportunities for vocational-school students to be exposed to the culture in Western China, direct contact should be established, such as recruiting students from the western region, going to companies in the western region for internships, etc. Indirect contact can also serve this purpose—e.g., building an online network platform, appreciating artworks produced in the western region and increasing campus cultural activities. Second, we can consider the use of the narrative method for career education design, which means putting some cultural implications into the narrative to find the meaning and value of working in the West. In the context of the contemporary period, each story is an expression of culture. Third, students should be trained to use the resources and tools provided by culture to solve problems, think about problems in a culturally appropriate context and consider the cultural scenario (e.g., the space, geographical environment, social area and timespan) of their future work, aiming to acquire appropriate cultural tools.

Close relations and public opinion

This study shows that SNs affect the EI of vocational-school students. First, from the perspective of family members, parents and siblings can participate in students’ career planning and decision-making. Schools can provide relevant career-related information to family members through seminars and other means to help students make their career choices and related plans, expand the scope of employment options and generate new ideas. Second, make the best use of public opinion, such as mass media and the Internet, to help people reduce their prejudice. Public opinion leads to cultural trends affecting individual cognition; it is one of the main channels through which students perceive cultural meanings. Therefore, the mass media should do engage in positive publicity and reporting, focus on the modernisation and development of Western China, show the development process of this region and create favourable conditions for students who plan to work there. Third, in the process of education, teachers should cultivate awareness of national policies to encourage students to pay attention to policies related to their own employment. Parents should be invited to attend employment seminars and related lectures in schools to broaden channels for public awareness.

Students’ understanding of themselves and their environment

The target population of this study was vocational-school students, who often have only a vague understanding of their own conditions and those of their environment. They are seldom confident in their academic qualifications and believe that there will be many restrictions on their employment. In the current employment environment, there is a large gap between the vocational and technical fields, but students feel that they cannot find the ideal job and know little about national policy. The more students know about their own conditions and those of their environment, the more likely they will be to make appropriate career decisions. Therefore, teachers should help students gain a comprehensive understanding of themselves, society and culture, and apply this knowledge to their own decision-making processes. Self-knowledge encompasses knowledge about one's own personality type, employment attitude, employment ability, cultural interaction ability and interests. In this process, we should support individuals in developing their career initiatives, putting them into practice and striving to make students become active participants in their career decision-making. It is necessary to help students translate their career goals into a course of action and set a timeframe to complete the goal. Establishing a course of action could encourage continuous reflection and discussion of the skills and goals learned. Accordingly, schools can create cultural contact scenes and increase the opportunities for cultural contact.

In short, vocational-school students are more mobile in their ever-changing careers, while, in their choice of employment, they need more information to improve their personal awareness. Only through the accumulation of work-related knowledge, skills and experience can they develop a wider perspective and exploit the development potential of Western China.

Limitations and future research

This study had some limitations. The first concerns the reliability and validity of the measurement methods used in this study, which still need testing. Because these measures were developed for this specific study, additional follow-up studies should be conducted to verify their reliability and validity. Although these measures were shown to be statistically adequate in the present study, future studies should validate them using other samples to provide sufficient evidence for their reliability and validity. Second, all measures in this study were obtained through self-reporting, which can lead to common method variance, meaning that the overlap of variation between two variables is owed to the use of the same measurement tool rather than representing the true relationship between underlying constructs. Podsakoff and Organ suggested that common method variations may affect analysis results.⁴⁴ Meanwhile, Korsgaard and Roberson proposed that if common method variance is a significant problem, simple (i.e., one-factor models) and more complex models should be used to fit the data. In this study, although the threat of common method variance could not be eliminated, it was not a serious problem.⁴⁵

Two recommendations for future research are proposed. First, this study only tested three core variables of the TPB constructs and EI; it did not measure the actual behaviour of vocational-school students. A meta-analysis reported that multiple correlations of TPB constructs (including intention) with behaviour were approximately 0.5.³ Future studies should test the complete model by incorporating actual career-choice behaviours to better understand the relationship between actual intentions and behaviours. Second, future research may explore how contextual factors affect vocational-school students’ employment intentions and investigate the influence of contextual support and barriers on adolescents’ career intentions and career-choice behaviours. Third, future research could further study the sources of their attitudes and fundamental reasoning.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

He Li

Mengxu Fan

Chenlu Ma

Ethical considerations

The authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (as revised in 2013). The study was approved by the Shanxi University Ethics Review Board (No. SXULL2022009).

Funding

The article is funded by the National Social Science Fund of China (Youth Program in Education) “Research on the function of aesthetic education of folk art and the construction of folk-art aesthetic curriculum in the kindergarten” (Grant No.: CLA200280).

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Informed consent

All individual participants gave informed consent to take part in this study.

Reporting guidelines

Not Applicable

References

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