Abstract
In South Korea, higher education is widely available to all people. However, few people with disabilities have received a college education. In 1995, the Higher Education Special Admission for Students with Special Needs policy was implemented to promote opportunities for individuals with disabilities to have access to higher education. Since the special admission policy was implemented, an increasing number of high school students with disabilities have entered college. Research indicates that the transition from high school to higher education is not smooth for students with disabilities. Accordingly, this article discusses issues surrounding this transition for students with disabilities after briefly describing the college entrance system and policies on transitioning to higher education in South Korea.
Higher education in South Korea is available to all. The college entrance rate increased from 33% in 1990 to 71% in 2015 (J. Lee & Moon, 2015). However, few people with disabilities have received a college education (D. Kim, Lee, Kim, Kim, & Park, 2004). In 1995, the Higher Education Special Admission for Students with Special Needs (hereinafter, special admission) policy was implemented to promote opportunities for individuals with disabilities to have access to higher education. Since the special admission policy was implemented, an increasing number of high school students with disabilities have entered college. In 2016, 816 high school graduates with disabilities enrolled in 2-year and 4-year colleges through the special admission pathway compared with 217 high school graduates with disabilities in 1996 (Korean Ministry of Education, 2017).
Although more students with disabilities and their parents are being drawn toward higher education (K. Kim & Cho, 2013), research indicates that students with disabilities experience difficulty adjusting to college life (K. Kim, 2015; Seo, 2010). The dropout and academic failure rates are higher for college students with disabilities than the corresponding rates for their peers without disabilities (Korean Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology, 2011). In addition, many college students with disabilities experience more stress and depression than their typical peers (J. Kim, Kang, & Kim, 2007). College students with disabilities may experience difficulty adapting to college due to various reasons, especially lack of college preparation in high school and lack of support in college (D. Kim et al., 2004; K. Kim, 2014). Accordingly, this article discusses the issues surrounding the transition from high school to college for students with disabilities, including the need for systematic secondary school preparation for and support during higher education.
College Entrance System in South Korea
The South Korean college entrance system is divided into two types: early (occasional) admission and regular admission. In early admission, college admission screening procedures commonly include screening of students’ transcripts of high school records, comprehensive school records, and/or performance. For regular admission, screening procedures include reviewing students’ scores on the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT).
Furthermore, universities can select applicants through the special admission pathway within a fixed quota based on special experiences, talents, and so forth; they can also select students through the special admission pathway beyond the fixed quota, based on the relevant laws regarding affirmative action (e.g., students who have low socioeconomic status, are from rural areas, have special needs, and are vocational high school graduates). The screening procedure for special admission within the fixed quota based on special experiences and/or talents should conform to the screening for early or regular admission. In special admission beyond the fixed quota based on affirmative action, especially for students with special needs, college admission procedures depend on universities. Many colleges and universities require students to have minimum high school grade point average (GPA) or CSAT scores to be admitted.
Special Education Policies on Higher Education
The South Korean government has concerned itself with the education of individuals with disabilities since the late 1970s. In 1977, the Korean government passed the Special Education Promotion Act, which enhanced access to elementary and secondary education for students with disabilities. In 1995, the Higher Education Special Admission for Students with Special Needs policy was proposed under Article 29 of the Enforcement Decree of Higher Education Act. Since the Special Education Promotion Act had a limitation as regards supporting students with disabilities after they entered college, it was abolished in 2007. Then, the Act on Special Education for Persons with Disabilities, Etc. (ASEPDE) was enacted in the same year to provide an integrated educational environment for persons with disabilities, as it considers education for people with disabilities at all stages of their life cycle.
The ASEPDE provided provisions for college admission and college support in higher education for persons with disabilities. Specifically, according to the act, colleges cannot discriminate against individuals with disabilities as regards educational opportunities, including preventing them from applying for college or rejecting their admission to college because of their disability. In addition, the head of a university shall establish and operate a special support committee if the university has more than 10 students with disabilities to establish plans supporting students with disabilities as well as to review and make decisions regarding requests for examinations. The act requires a college to provide educational support and services (e.g., learning aids, assistive technology, access to information, and installation of convenience facilities) for students with disabilities by establishing and running a disability support center or disability support division in the college to ensure it is convenient for these students to engage in educational activities.
In 2007, the Congress enacted the Act on Prohibition of Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities, Remedy against Infringement of their Rights, Etc. Its intention was to ensure full inclusion of and equal opportunity for people with disabilities by prohibiting discrimination against them in major life activities because of their disability. Furthermore, it effectively protected the rights and interests of persons with disabilities who have been discriminated against. Based on this act, colleges and universities are required to actively provide accommodations during college entrance examinations to people with disabilities, if they need it.
However, these legislations are not concrete compared with higher education legislation in other countries, as they only specify general rules. In other words, whereas legislation in Korea states general educational tenets (such as “should” and “should not be”), other countries establish more specific, action-oriented rules for “what to do” (Korean Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology, 2011). For example, in Korea, the law simply states that higher education institutes should ensure that students with disabilities do not face disadvantages in receiving postsecondary educational services. In contrast, laws in the United Kingdom provide more concrete requirements for higher education institutes to help students with disabilities. They mandate that a college or department take appropriate steps to eliminate difficulties faced by students with disabilities in receiving educational services. Similarly, Japanese legislation specifies the actions required to develop academic support systems for people with developmental disabilities. Furthermore, laws stipulate the guidelines for supporting higher education in universities. In addition, in the United States, the Higher Education Improvement Act created a fund to support programs promoting high-quality education for students with disabilities (e.g., Demonstration Projects to Ensure Students with Disabilities Receive a High-Quality Education Program). However, there is no budget other than the budget for providing a peer assistant for students with disabilities and the disability welfare evaluation budget to support students with disabilities in higher education. At each university, the expenses required to operate a disability support center are borne by the university itself.
Current Status of College Enrollment Among Youth with Disabilities
In South Korea, there were 89,353 students with disabilities in 2017 (Korean Ministry of Education, 2017); of these, 29.3% (n = 26,199) received special education at special schools and institutions, and 70.7% (n = 63,154) received inclusive education in community schools. Of the community-educated group, 53.2% were educated in special classrooms and 17.5% in regular classrooms.
In 2017, of 7,734 (15.4%) high school graduates with disabilities, 1,191 were enrolled in 2-year and 4-year colleges (3.9% in special schools, 11.9% in special classrooms, and 49.4% in regular classroom), which is 2.5 times more than the university enrollment rates of 2001. Moreover, in 2016, 878 students with disabilities were admitted to 2-year and 4-year colleges through the special admission pathway, compared with 113 students with disabilities in 1995 (Korean Ministry of Education, 2017).
As of 2011, the total number of students enrolled in higher education was 2,955,711, including 549,566 in 2-year colleges and 2,406,145 in 4-year colleges. Among them, the total number of students with disabilities is 6,976 (1,337 in 2-year colleges and 5,292 in 4-year colleges), accounting for 0.2%. College students identified themselves as having the following disabilities: 57.3% with cerebral palsy, 14.9% with visual impairments, 13.6% with hearing impairments, 7.7% with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities, and 6.6% with other disabilities (Korean Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology, 2011).
Issues Related to Transitioning to Higher Education
To provide people with disabilities the opportunity of obtaining higher education, the Ministry of Education has been applying the college special admission policy for students with special needs since 1995. With the rise in the number of students with disabilities entering higher education, various issues have emerged during their transition from high school to college. In this section, the supports for overcoming the issues in transitioning to higher education are also presented.
Secondary School Preparation for Higher Education
There have been considerable changes in the interests of stakeholders regarding higher education since the special admission policy for people with disabilities was implemented in 1995. Especially, students with disabilities and their parents have changed their focus from discrimination during the process of admission into higher education to college preparation in secondary school (Jeong, 2017; K. Kim, 2014). Although an increasing number of students with disabilities and their parents are interested in postsecondary education, secondary schools fail to adequately prepare students with disabilities to move into higher education by providing, for example, university entrance guidance, access to college-oriented courses, an inclusive environment, and training for self-advocacy.
University entrance guidance in high school
In South Korea, as both research on transition services and the services themselves mostly center on improving skills associated with independent living and post-school employability rather than college enrollment (Y. Lee, Lee, Lee, & Kim, 2011), students with disabilities who are interested in college do not receive adequate attention, such as through college admission counseling during high school despite the correlation between college counseling and college entrance (K. Kim, 2015; Seo, 2010). Specifically, more than half of the students with disabilities in the inclusive classroom who were thinking about going to college did not receive college admission counseling from their classroom teachers (Jeung & Han, 2012; J. Lee & Park, 2014). Most teachers of these classrooms mentioned that they were not aware of the application procedures and materials regarding the special admission policy for students with disabilities (Jeung & Han, 2012). Special education teachers’ lack of awareness became a barrier for college-bound students with disabilities in special schools (Park & Na, 2003; Seo, 2010). In addition, many special education teachers had little knowledge or up-to-date information about college majors and just provided the students with basic college information (Jung, 2012; Seo, 2010). Although high school students with disabilities who are interested in postsecondary education have a strong desire to obtain detailed information on college admission requirements, major requirements, career prospects in the major in which they are interested, and availability of disability support through college admission counseling, they have difficulty in finding the information they want (S. Choi & Lee, 2014; T. Lee & Lee, 2012). Such lack of information and college guidance may lead them to drop out of college because of mismatch between the selected major and their understanding of it.
Supports
Secondary school teachers reported that the main difficulty in providing college admissions counseling to students with disabilities is the lack of information on special admission procedures and requirements (Jeung & Han, 2012). As each higher education institution has its own admission process and requirements, there are limitations on teachers’ ability to collect all the necessary information. Therefore, it is important for the National Institute of Special Education to establish a portal for information on special admission processes and requirements. Each college or university would be asked to upload the relevant information, so that anyone who is interested in can access it. Also, regional special education centers should consider providing teachers information on special admission applications and procedures (i.e., at least for majors, colleges, or universities popular among students with disabilities). This information could be disseminated through workshops or booklets. Likewise, teachers need to encourage students with disabilities who have college aspirations to participate in college admission fairs. Teachers could also invite college students with disabilities who were admitted through special admission pathways to share their experiences in choosing a college or major. Finally, schools can run mentoring programs, matching college students with disabilities to students having similar disabilities, and who are interested in similar majors.
Access to college-oriented courses
Due to the special admission policy, students with disabilities can obtain access to higher education much easier than before. Although many colleges and universities require minimum GPA or CSAT scores for students with disabilities who admitted through the special admission pathway, many college students with disabilities who graduated from special schools face difficulty in following their classes (Seo, 2010). These students are frequently dissatisfied with their limited choices of college-oriented courses and want more extracurricular activities for college admission. This is because special schools have a vocation-oriented curriculum that does not include courses needed for college entrance examinations and teaches only a lower level of the main subjects (e.g., Korean, English, and mathematics). Some special school students rely on private tutoring to learn the topics needed for college entrance examinations that they have not been taught at their schools (Jeong, 2017). In addition, they rarely have an opportunity during high school to learn in an inclusive environment with students without disabilities. College students with disabilities who had attended special schools often found themselves having difficulty in integrating with their typical peers (J. Kim et al., 2007).
Supports
Although many high school students with disabilities have plans to attend college, their course of study does not always align with their college aspirations. An increasing number of students with disabilities in special schools are interested in pursuing higher education. Thus, schools should provide college preparatory courses by running two curriculum tracks, including vocation- and college-oriented courses. Doing so would allow students with disabilities to make choices based on their future plans. Given the impact of curriculum structure on course-taking and plans for attending college, transition planning may need to begin sooner, so as to allow students with disabilities to follow a college preparatory course of study in high school.
Training for self-advocacy
Unlike high school, in colleges and universities, students with disabilities ask the institutions to provide them individual accommodations to meet their special needs. In higher education, self-advocacy is noted as an essential skill (Grenwelge & Zhang, 2013). Unfortunately, in South Korea, most self-advocacy interventions focus on students with intellectual disabilities (S. Choi, Kim, Lee, & Hwang, 2012). Many special education teachers incorrectly believe that students with disabilities who attend college will be able to self-advocate, even if they do not learn self-advocacy skills at school. They consider self-advocacy as very important and strongly demand self-advocacy education at high school (K. Kim, 2014).
Supports
To be most effective, the foundation for self-advocacy skills must be laid during the middle and high school years. Students with disabilities who are considering going into higher education should understand (a) their disability, (b) how it affects them, (c) their learning style, and (d) their strengths and weaknesses. These skills can be developed through both explicit instruction and by providing opportunities for students with disabilities to practice the skills they have learned. To assist them in developing these skills, teachers can provide instruction that is integrated into curriculum content areas (e.g., social studies) or teach students with disabilities how to direct their Individual Education Planning (IEP). This could involve students learning how to initiate their IEP meeting, review past goals, discuss future goals, and close the IEP meeting. Students who possess these skills will be more likely to self-identify as a student with a disability in college, be more effective at communicating their strengths and needs, and thus be more likely to request appropriate accommodations from instructors.
Support During Higher Education
Although the ASEPDE stipulates educational rights and support for students with disabilities in higher education, many colleges and universities have been very slow to meet their needs. To facilitate colleges and universities in improving the educational welfare of students with disabilities, the Korean Ministry of Education has implemented an Assessment for Educational Welfare Support for College Students with Disabilities since 2003. However, problems continue, including providing barrier-free environments and educational support for students with disabilities (T. Lee & Oh, 2015).
Barrier-free environment
For the majority of students with disabilities entering university, the greatest difficulty in college life is the physically challenging environment in colleges and universities. According to the 2014 results of the Assessment for Educational Welfare Support for College Students with Disabilities (T. Lee & Oh, 2015), in the physical environment area, which evaluates the degree to which the installation and improvement of the facilities in the university have made them accessible for students with disabilities, 64 out of 371 colleges and universities were excellent (2.7%) or good (14.6%), whereas 307 were considered as average (38.0%) or in need of improvement (44.7%). Two-year colleges showed worse results than 4-year colleges in this area. Many students with disabilities pointed out that access to a building or dormitory is an important factor of consideration when applying to a college (Jeong, 2017). In addition, because making buildings accessible to people with disabilities is expensive, many higher education institutes have a tendency to accept students with disabilities who are not physically challenged (J. Choi, 2012).
Supports
It is fundamental for students with disabilities to access campus buildings, thereby guaranteeing their right to an education. Yet, colleges and universities often consider the investment of money in facility accessibility to be a financial burden. Considering their limited budgets, colleges and universities should first survey the needs of students with disabilities to identify the areas needing improvement. Then, facilities should be installed and repaired in places where they can be most effective. Also, colleges and universities could allow students with disabilities to register for classes before other students. Doing so would allow classes taken by these students to be scheduled on the first floors of buildings. Finally, the results of the Assessment for Educational Welfare Support for College Students with Disabilities should be posted on the homepage of each college and university, so that students with disabilities and their families can evaluate how accessible a campus is when they apply to a college.
Educational support
To protect the educational rights of students with disabilities in postsecondary education, appropriate educational supports should be provided for them. According to the 2014 results of the Assessment for Educational Welfare Support for College Students with Disabilities (T. Lee & Oh, 2015), only 79 out of 371 colleges and universities had grades that were the highest (11.1%) or best (10.2%), and 292 were at the average level (23.2%) or in need of improvement (55.5%) in the academic support area. This area evaluates the extent to which educational support is given to students with disabilities, so that they are able to participate in lectures. The majority of students with disabilities in higher education felt that they were not adequately cared for due to university members’ lack of awareness of people with disabilities, lack of understanding of how to support them, and lack in utilizing learning aids (D. Kim, Jeong, Ko, Kim, & Kim, 2013).
Supports
Research indicates that the greatest difficulties in students’ academic performance in higher education were that the necessary learning equipment was not properly supported and that lecturers did not consider characteristics of students with disabilities (Kim et al., 2013). Professors have a keen awareness of how necessary it is to provide higher education for people with disabilities. Even so, they lack practical understanding of disabilities, and how to provide accommodations for these students. To improve professors’ comprehension of the educational needs of students with disabilities, the disability support center could provide instructors information on how to offer adaptations. This could take the form of either full- or part-time workshops (e.g., workshops for new instructors or professional development workshops). Many colleges and universities ask all instructors to take such in-service trainings to improve their teaching skills. Also, if an assistive technology is expensive to purchase, a disability support center could consider establishing a sharing network with neighboring secondary schools, regional special education centers, or other college disability support centers.
Conclusion
There is an increasing focus on and interest in the education of people with disabilities, and it has been extended to higher education since the college special admission policy was implemented in 1995 for people with disabilities. As more students with disabilities attend college, it is important to ensure a system for preparing them for the transition from high school to college. This should include systematic preparation in secondary school and physical and educational support in higher education.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This paper was supported by Konkuk University in 2016.
