Abstract
This study was undertaken to explore if the type of director succession (new director chosen within or outside of the school) influenced the number of superior ratings in adjudicated choral festivals. The author identified the schools meeting the selection criteria, analyzing director changes in 48 schools with 2,824 different choirs across 20 years. A significant number of concert ratings declined with a new director; however, no significant differences in sight-reading scores were in evidence. In Year 2 for the new director, a significant number of rating changes occurred resulting in significantly higher ratings for concert and sight-reading. Results are discussed in terms of implications for teacher preparation, for practicing choral educators completing transitions, and for future research.
Within the music educator profession, music teachers leave the profession or change schools, thus modifying the leadership positions in the classroom. Educators of preservice teachers or mentors of teachers considering job changes may benefit from information concerning the effects of director change. Grusky (1961) defines the change of leadership as “succession,” and regardless of when or why a teacher leaves, programs typically continue with a newly appointed director. This study applies similar techniques as those used in sports leagues studies to evaluate the effect of choral director successions as measured by available data compiled from 20 years of choral concert and sight-reading festival.
The effect of the change in leadership has been studied using corporations (Grusky, 1961; Lieberson & O’Connor, 1972), sports leagues (Allen, Panian, & Lotz, 1979; Eitzen & Yetman, 1972; Gamson & Scotch, 1964; Grusky, 1963; Pfeffer & Davis-Blake, 1986), and schools (Hart, 1991; Miskel & Cosgrove, 1985; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005). Three basic original theories exist about the relationship of managerial succession and performance. The following theories were the basis on which this study was designed. An initial theory claims that succession improves performance (Gamson & Scotch, 1964), another claims it hinders performance (Grusky, 1963), and the third maintains that succession has no bearing on performance (Allen et al., 1979). A number of different reasons account for succession regardless of the type of organization. The reasons for succession as stated by (Grusky, 1960) are (1) environmentally controlled such as in death, illness, or movement to another organization, or (2) organizationally controlled through promotion, demotion, or dismissal. It is on what happens to organizations as a result of managerial succession that the following studies are based.
Succession and Sports Win/Loss Records
Grusky’s (1963) research examined major league baseball teams’ performance records to test his hypothesis that the higher the turnover rate of coaches, the more poorly the organization performed. His hypothesis was confirmed by a correlation of −.43 between the rates of coaching change to team performance, indicating that teams with a higher turnover rate of coaches had a decrease in performance. Grusky cautioned that though there was an existence of an association between the succession of coaches and the performance record, the correlation did not indicate causality. Grusky also proposed a “vicious circle” theory, which stated that poor team performance led to a managerial succession, which in turn led to further deterioration of the team’s performance. This was contrasted with the “common sense” theory that a managerial change led to an improvement in team performance.
In a replication and extension of the Gamson and Scotch (1964) study, Grusky (1964), examined the effect of the type of succession on team performance. Differentiation was made between inside successors, those hired from inside the team, and outside successors, those hired from outside the team. In this analysis, winning percentages before and after managerial changes of 23 teams were compared to teams with midseason managerial changes. Results indicated that inside team succession was more closely related to improvement in team performance, and that outside team succession was associated with neither a decline nor improvement in team performance. Grusky concluded that inside team successions were less disruptive than outside team successions.
In a later study, Eitzen and Yetman (1972) examined managerial change and organizational effectiveness among college basketball teams. Analysis was based on the number of coaching changes and the team winning percentages data collected for college teams (N = 129) between the years 1930 and 1970. On the basis of the correlation between the number of coaching changes and the percentage of team wins, it was concluded that schools with lower coaching turnovers had a higher percentage of wins. Team performance following a change in coach was also examined. After simple review of seasons prior to and after a change in coaching, an improvement in team performance was indicated. However, Eitzen and Yetman suggested that the improvement might have been due to the effect of regression toward the mean and therefore examined the average team performance for five seasons prior to the coaching change. Their data indicated that a coaching change made no difference in team effectiveness.
Variables Affecting Choral Festival Ratings
Whereas the success records of various teams and companies depend on recruiting, salaries, and individual team members, public schools face different challenges during succession. Music festivals and related variables affecting music achievement have long been the source of national discussion and debate among researchers (Hamann, Mills, Bell, Daugherty, & Koozer, 1990). Studies of competitions have yielded differing philosophical opinions, but few if any data are available about the effect of succession on choral festival ratings.
Bergee (2006) found four extra musical variables that contributed to choral festival ratings: time of day, performance medium, type of event, and school size. Other variables for consideration were geographical location (metropolitan or nonmetropolitan) and district funding. High ratings were best predicted for students who performed in the afternoon, had a high district funding, performed a solo, and were vocalists. A replication of this study by Bergee and Westfall (2005) extended the number of participants (N = 4,062) and examined the stability of the previous studies’ models for data. The most recent study (Bergee, 2006) used a binomial logistic regression analysis with ratings (years 2002, 2003, and 2004) as the dependent variable. Results of this study indicated that these results were repeatable and had consistent results across time and populations. When applied to the festival setting, these nonmusical factors, excluding the solo performance, still apply and when coupled with director succession may further compromise the rating.
Killian (2000) investigated literature selections as a contributing factor in middle school contest ratings. This study explored potential differences in literature selection between choirs highly rated and less highly rated. Choirs (N = 167) participated in a 1999 choral competition in Carrollton, Texas. Resulting ratings were compared to determine differences (if any) in ratings among choirs choosing repertoire from a prescribed music list versus those free to choose from any literature. Nonmusical factors were also included in this study and included the number of participants, grade levels, choir classification, choir size, and school size. Choirs ranged in size from 7 to 120 members and sang a total of 334 songs. Larger choirs (>30 singers) received more superior ratings consistently in mixed, treble, and tenor-bass categories. Superior ratings were not found to be dependent on whether the director chose music from a prescribed list or his or her own discretion. Choir classification, size of choir, and size of school were all significant factors in increasing the probability of receiving a higher rating.
Although little known research is focused on the effect of director succession, a wealth of advice and helpful anecdotes have been written for first-year teachers or veteran teachers moving to new positions. Displaying a positive attitude, communication with administrators, and building relationships with fellow faculty members were consistently mentioned as a means to a smooth transition within the school (Hart, 2003). Asserting consistent, firm discipline (Hart, 2003), recognizing student leaders (Hunt, 1989), and being active in the community (Hart, 2003) were suggested as ways to develop positive student, community, and parental support. According to Hamann et al. (1990), the classroom setting may enhance or detract from the festival ratings. Given the effect of leader succession in sports, business, and schools, but a lack of research concerning the effect of director succession in choral settings, the following study was undertaken to explore if the type of director succession influenced the number of superior ratings in concert, or if a significant change in festival ratings existed between the previous director and the new director. Other areas of interest included how ratings improved or declined between the year of the former director and the first year of the new director and if the type of succession (director chosen from within or outside the school) had any bearing on the number of superior ratings.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to determine if a change in choir director had an effect on choral concert and sight-reading festival ratings. Questions considered during this study include the following: (a) does the type of succession have any bearing on the number of superior ratings received, (b) how do ratings change during the first year of a new director, and (c) how do ratings change during the second year of the new director.
Method
The process for evaluating factors related to choral festival ratings in and of itself is a complicated task. However, currently compiled and archived data may yield insights into how ratings change when there is a change in choral director. Factors pertinent in collecting such data are to initially narrow the number of festival locations, determine which high schools meet grade level and time requirements and then which of those schools had at least one director succession. Data collected for this study were retrieved from the archives of a large southern statewide choral festival. Permission was granted from festival administrators to examine the choral archives, gather, and tabulate the previous 20 years of choral festival records. The state in which this festival occurred is currently divided into 28 academic sections known as regions. As populations increase or decrease, region boundaries can be redrawn or additional regions can be added. Because of the enormity of data, the following study was narrowed by selecting a sample of six regions that met the following criteria: (a) regions that represent varied geographical locations across the state; (b) regions that encompass urban and rural school settings; (c) regions that have various high school sizes, socioeconomics levels, and ethnic populations; and (d) regions that were established prior to 1997 and had complete choral festival data. Within the six selected regions, high schools were selected for this study that met the following criteria: (a) high schools contained Grades 9–12, (b) had a continuous region assignment for the past 20 years, (c) school had continuous choral festival participation for the past 20 years, and (d) the choir had experienced inside or outside succession during that 20-year period.
Inside successions were defined as choral programs that had at least one director that did not leave during periods of incoming or outgoing directors. Data did not indicate whether the new director replaced the head director or assistant director. To be categorized as an “inside succession,” there was at least one director that remained on staff, whereas another director moved into or out of the program. Data indicated this type of succession by naming multiple directors during the same school year.
Outside successions were defined as the replacement of a director(s) when no currently serving director remained in the program. These definitions pair closely with those of Grusky (1963). The data did not indicate whether successions happened during the summer break between June and August or during the winter break from mid-December to early January.
It was important that the schools remained in the same region for the entire 20 years because each region is self-governing and runs its own festival. Although strict festival guidelines must be adhered to, some differences in location, time, and venue may vary from region to region. It was the intent of the researcher to avoid potential contamination of data because differences in the festival format from region to region. Festivals, as indicated by Bergee (2006), that differ in the performance venue, times of performance, and structure of performance may influence festival ratings.
The qualifying high schools within the selected six regions (n = 48) included 2,824 different choirs across 20 years. Choirs spanned three ability levels: varsity (n = 1,939), nonvarsity (n = 821), and sub-nonvarsity (n = 64). The voicings of the choirs included mixed (n = 1,268), treble (n = 1,050), and tenor-bass (n = 442). In this particular festival, each choir performs in a concert venue and again in a sight-reading venue.
Three judges adjudicate the concert portion of the festival and an additional panel of three different judges adjudicates the sight-reading portion of the festival. Ratings are tallied from the separate panels and a separate rating is awarded for each portion of the festival. Ratings are given on a 1–5 scale, with 1 being the most superior rating.
Raw data for analysis included region number, year of participation, the number and type of succession (inside or outside), choir director(s) for each given year, choir types that participated in the festival (mixed, treble, or tenor-bass), concert rating for each year per choir and sight-reading rating for each year per choir.
Results
After collecting data, successions were categorized as either an inside succession or an outside succession. Initial analysis sought to indicate if there was a significant difference in the types of succession. Using a chi-square “goodness-of-fit” test (Madsen & Moore, 1978), data indicated that the total numbers of inside successions (appointing a director from within the school) compared with outside successions (appointing a director from outside the school) was not significant, χ2(2, N = 203) = 3.54, p = .0599. However, when data were divided by geographical regions, there were significantly more inside successions for Region 5, χ2(2, N = 31) = 15.62, p < .0001, and significantly more outside successions for Region 14, χ2(2, N = 31) = 18.58, p < .0001—and Region 22, χ2(2, N = 36) = 34.02, p < .0001. Regions 7 and 19 showed no significant difference between the types of successions experienced.
Succession Type and Superior Ratings
Inside and outside successions were further analyzed to determine if the type of succession influenced the number of superior ratings (rating of 1). Of the superior concert ratings (n = 753), significance was obtained for schools that had strictly inside successions, which yielded 511 superior ratings, χ2(2, N = 753) = 95.38, p < .0001. However, when choir voicings were considered as separate units of study, the varsity mixed choirs showed no significant differences, χ2(2, N = 247) = 1.32, p = .2506, between numbers of superior ratings regardless of type of succession.
Sight-reading comprised the second portion of the choral festival, and therefore sight-reading ratings were also analyzed to determine if the type of succession had any bearing on the number of superior ratings received. Of the superior sight-reading ratings (n = 577), choirs that only experienced inside successions had significantly more superior ratings, χ2(2, N = 577) = 99.82, p < .0001. When separated into ability levels, the varsity mixed choir voicings did not show a significant difference in the number of superior ratings regardless of succession type, χ2(2, N = 238) = 2.62, p = .1055.
Number of Rating Changes Between the Former Director and New Director
Data were further analyzed to determine if there was a significant difference between the number of ratings that changed (either improving or declining) between the previous director and the new director. When concert and sight-reading rating changes were combined and analyzed, results indicated that a significant number of rating changes occurred between the last year of the former director and the first year for the new director, χ2(2, N = 269) = 38.68, p < .0001. Of the ratings that changed (n = 186), a chi-square analysis was used to determine if a significant number of ratings improved or declined between the year of the previous director and the first year of the new director. Results indicated that a significant number (n = 117 vs. 69) of concert ratings declined, χ2(2, N = 95) = 11.26, p = .0008, and that there were no significant differences in the rating change for sight-reading, χ2(2, N = 95) = 2.06, p = .1512.
Number of Rating Changes Between the New Director’s First Year and Second Year
A separate chi-square test was administered to determine if there was a change in ratings between the first and second year of the new director. Results indicated that a significant number of rating changes occurred between the first year of succession and the second year after succession, χ2(2, N = 196) = 58.42, p < .0001. Ratings that changed (n =152) were analyzed to determine if ratings improved or declined between the first year of succession and the subsequent year. Data indicated that the number of ratings that improved (n =108) were significant, χ2(2, N = 152) = 26.12, p < .0001. Results suggested that a significant number of concert ratings (n = 52) improved between the first year of succession and the second year χ2(2, N = 81) = 14.42, p < .0001. Results also indicated that a significant number of sight-reading ratings (n = 56) improved between the year of succession and the following year, χ2(2, N = 81) = 11.12, p = .0009, as shown in Figures 1 and 2.
Succession and concert ratings change
Succession and sight-reading rating changes
Discussion
The Effect of Succession Type on Superior Ratings
The present study was designed to examine how director succession affected choral festival ratings. The initial question, “Does a change in choir director have an effect on choral concert and sight-reading festival ratings?” can be answered in the affirmative, according to the chi-square results indicating that significantly more choral festival ratings changed the first year of the succession than remained the same. Of the 465 total ratings observed for outside successions, 338 ratings changed in some way, either improving to a better rating or declining from a previous rating. Some ratings remained the same regardless of any outside director succession. Possible causes for ratings to stagnate suggest that the choirs may have ceilinged at a superior rating of 1 and could not show a rating improvement, or perhaps they had the lowest score of a 5 and failed to improve from the previous year.
The type of succession experienced by schools was not evenly distributed. Of the 10 schools that reported having just inside successions, 511 superior ratings across 20 years were reported—an average of 51 superior ratings per school. Of the 22 schools whose data indicated that just outside successions occurred, 242 superior ratings were received with an average of 11 superior ratings per school across the same 20-year period. Possible factors influencing these results include the number of participating schools, kinds of programs, or type of succession. Schools with larger choral programs or multiple directors have the ability to have an inside succession by the definition given, whereas schools in which there is a single director have no option but to hire from outside the school.
When comparing superior ratings, with the type of succession, the varsity mixed choirs showed no significant difference between the number of superior ratings and the type of succession experienced. Varsity mixed choirs with just inside successions had 133 superior ratings, and varsity mixed choirs with just outside successions had 114 superior ratings. Grusky’s (1964) analysis comparing the winning percentages before and after managerial changes concluded that inside team succession was more closely related to improvement in team performance, and that outside team succession was associated with neither a decline nor improvement in team performance. Grusky concluded that inside team successions were less disruptive than outside team successions. The data and analysis of the superior ratings for this current study support Grusky’s theory. With the exception of the varsity mixed choirs in both concert and sight-reading, inside successions were less disruptive than outside successions.
Results fueled the question as to why superior ratings were more consistent for the varsity mixed choirs regardless of succession type. I speculate that this finding is because the varsity mixed choir, regardless of succession type, is usually the most advanced performing and sight-reading group that a school has. As in college and professional sports, the varsity mixed choir is able to succeed regardless of who the director is, when a succession occurs, or what type of succession has taken place. The other performing groups, especially the less advanced groups’ ratings reflected the change in leadership more strongly. Varsity choirs typically have older and more experienced singers than the nonvarsity or sub-nonvarsity choirs and therefore may have common qualities of choral expectation of excellence and sight-reading experience than do the younger or less experienced choirs.
Changes in Festival Ratings and Outside Successions
Outside succession data indicated that there were a significant number of changes in the festival ratings between the former director and new director’s first year. Of the changes that occurred during the first year of succession (n = 186), it was the concert ratings (n = 91) that declined significantly (n = 62). Possible reasons for this decline could be the succession itself, or as indicated in the studies of Killian (2000) the selection of piece, voicing of choir, or choir size. Perhaps students were less likely to respond to the new rehearsal styles or conducting techniques used by the new director. The researcher did note however that there was no significant improvement or decline in the sight-reading ratings between year of succession and the first year of the new director regardless of choir type or classification.
How ratings changed the second year for the new director following an outside succession yielded surprising results and warrants further discussion. Consistent with the Gamson and Scotch (1964) study, festival ratings improved the second year following succession. Out of the 152 changes that occurred in ratings following the year of succession, 108 ratings improved. This significant improvement was consistent for both concert and sight-reading ratings. Of the number of concert ratings that changed (n = 71), 52 ratings improved, and of the sight-reading ratings that changed (n = 81), 56 of those improved. When comparing first and second years of the new director, it was apparent that ratings had changed. When concert ratings improved, there were a significant number of improvements the second year following succession; and when the concert ratings declined, a significant number declined the first year of succession.
Of the sight-reading ratings that declined, a significant number declined the first year of succession and not the second year following succession. This finding countered the natural assumption that once a student was able to sight-read, he or she would retain the skill to do so regardless of succession. It may be that a disruption in the learning sequence of sight-reading or formula for sight-reading carries from one director to the next. Although data did not indicate the number of years the director had taught, experience should not be ruled out as a mitigating factor of the rating changes.
Implications for Teacher Education and Further Research
Because of the small sample of selected geographical regions and requirement for schools to remain in the same region, generalization of these results beyond this population should be made with caution. One may consider duplicating this research and include all regions within a participating state. Other areas to consider are choir size and school size classification. Although a school may be classified as a large 5A high school, their choir program may have a few members. Size of choir may affect ratings. Regardless of the number of choir participants, the 5A choir program of 60 students is held to the same judging standard and repertoire of a 300-member choir program. Are festival rating practices equitable when based on the size of the school? It is plausible that an experienced teacher replacing a newer teacher could experience positive rating changes and that a less experienced teacher may experience a rating decrease when replacing a more seasoned director. Further research is encouraged to discern if the number of years of teaching yields more successful ratings, or if tenure at a school establishes a rating pattern. We are left with the questions of causality and succession, how students perceive and respond to succession and how to best prepare students and programs for the planned departure of a director in addition to how to best meet the needs of educators entering the profession. Additional research beyond director succession and ratings may be to study the personality traits and tendencies of successful directors or how students perceive and handle director succession.
How then do we take on the task of educating teachers for what will be an inevitable part of their teaching career? This research suggests that programs for teacher preparation may need to consider their curriculum and how it addresses (or neglects to address) teacher turnover and director succession. Teacher preparation programs may consider including a component that not only discusses, strategies and mentor programs, but also continues to provide support for new teachers. A starting point from which to address director succession may be to acknowledge the probability of change in performance with a new director. Regardless of a school’s prior performance record as indicated by festival ratings, with a new director, there may be a change in performance ratings. This quantitative data can be beneficial for directors to have when transitioning to their first job or to a new position. Knowing that the less advanced choirs may have tendency to decline in performance ratings, teacher educators could consider addressing the motivational needs of less advanced students. This research also suggests that when transitioning, incoming directors may want to be aware of the teaching strategies used by the former director whenever possible. This can be accomplished through a simple class survey in which questions allow students to voice some favorite warm-ups or a learned sequence of learning new music. Such opportunities for students to share their experiences may better ease the transition from one director to another. Research on the effect of director succession can open the door to understanding that with change there will be a period of adjustment on both the part of the teacher and, most important, the student, but with ample planning and support of administrators, succession can bring about a change that is smooth and successful. By empowering preservice teachers and teachers considering job changes with this information and having it become part of the music education curriculum, universities can better equip their students to be successful not only in their first teaching assignment, but during future transitional periods.
Footnotes
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.
The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.