The literature on leader—member exchange theory (LMX) has consistently demonstrated the positive relationship between member perceptions of the quality of their relationship with the leader and member performance. The process through which relationship quality influences member performance, however, is still not fully understood.The present study provides an explanatory mechanism for this process. Specifically, feedback avoiding behavior, a feedback management strategy used by poor performers to minimize exposure to negative feedback from their leaders, fully mediates the relationship between LMX and member performance. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
Andrews, M.C., & Kacmar, K.M. ( 2001). Confirmation and extension of the sources of feedback scale in service-based organizations. Journal of Business Communication, 38, 206-226.
2.
Ashford, S.J. ( 1989). Self-assessment in organizations: A literature review and integrative model. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 11, 133-174). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
3.
Ashford, S.J., Blatt, R., & VandeWalle, D. (2003). Reflections on the looking glass: A review of research on feedback seeking behavior in organizations . Journal of Management, 29, 773-799.
4.
Ashford, S.J., & Cummings, L.L. (1983). Feedback as an individual resource: Personal strategies of creating information. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32, 370-398.
5.
Ashford, S.J., & Cummings, L.L. (1985). Proactive feedback seeking: The instrumental use of the information environment. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 58, 67-79.
6.
Ashford, S.J., & Tsui, A.S. ( 1991). Self-regulation for managerial effectiveness: The role of active feedback seeking. Academy of Management Journal , 34: 251-280.
7.
Ashforth, B.E., & Lee, R.T. ( 1990). Defensive behavior in organizations: A preliminary model . Human Relations, 43, 621-648.
8.
Audia, P.G., & Locke, E.A. ( 2003). Benefitting from negative feedback. Human Resource Management Review, 13, 631-646.
9.
Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. ( 1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction on social psychology research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
10.
Baruch, Y. ( 1999). Response rate in academic studies: A comparative analysis . Human Relations, 52, 421-438.
11.
Bauer, T.N., Erdogan, B., Liden, R.C., & Wayne, S.J. ( 2006). A longitudinal study of the moderating role of extraversion: Leader-member exchange, performance, and turnover during new executive development . Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 298-310.
12.
Bauer, T.N., & Green, S.G. ( 1996). Development of leader-member exchange: A longitudinal test. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 1538-1567.
13.
Bauer, T.M., Morrison, E.W., & Callister, R.R. (1998). Organizational socialization: A review and directions for future research. In G. R. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (pp. 149-214). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
14.
Bernerth, J.B., Armenakis, A.A., Feild, H.S., Giles, W.F., & Walker, H.J. ( 2008). The influence of personality differences between subordinates and supervisors on perceptions of LMX: An empirical investigation, Group & Organization Management, 33, 216-240.
15.
Caldwell, D., & O’Reilly, C. (1982). Responses to failure: The effects of choice and responsibility on impression management. Academy of Management Journal, 25, 121-136.
16.
Cannon, M.D., & Witherspoon, R. (2005). Actionable feedback: Unlocking the power of learning and performance improvement. Academy of Management Executive, 19, 120-134.
17.
Deluga, R.J. ( 1998). Leader-member exchange quality and effectiveness ratings . Group & Organization Management, 23, 189-216.
18.
Dunegan, K., Uhl-Bien, M., & Duchon, D. ( 2002). LMX and subordinate performance: The moderating effects of task characteristics. Journal of Business and Psychology , 17, 275-285.
19.
Edmondson, A. ( 1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams . Administrative Science Quarterly, 44, 350-383.
20.
Erdogan, B., & Enders, J. ( 2007). Support from the top: Supervisors’ perceived organizational support as a moderator of the leader-member exchange to satisfaction and performance relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 321-330.
21.
Fandt, P.M., & Ferris, G.R. ( 1990). The management of information and impressions: When employees behave opportunistically. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 45, 140-158.
22.
Fedor, D.B., & Rowland, K.M. ( 1989). Investigating supervisor attributions of subordinate performance. Journal of Management, 15, 405-416.
23.
Ferris, G.R. ( 1985). Role of leadership in the employee withdrawal process: A constructive replication. Journal of Applied Psychology , 70, 777-781.
24.
Gardner, W.L., & Martinko, M.J. (1988). Impression management in organizations. Journal of Management, 14, 321-338.
25.
Garvin, D.A., Edmondson, A.C., & Gino, F. ( 2008). Is yours a learning organization? Harvard Business Review, 86, 109-116.
26.
Gerstner, C.R., & Day, D.V. ( 1997). Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology , 82, 827-844.
27.
Goffman, E. ( 1956). Embarrassment and social organization. American Journal of Sociology, 62, 264-271.
28.
Graen, G., & Ginsburgh, S. ( 1977). Job resignation as a function of role orientation and leader acceptance: A longitudinal investigation of organizational assimilation . Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 19, 1-17.
29.
Graen, G., Liden, R., & Hoel, W. ( 1982). Role of leadership in the employee withdrawal process . Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 868-872.
30.
Graen, G., & Novak, M. ( 1982). The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 30, 109-131.
31.
Graen, G.B., & Scandura, T.A. (1987). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 9, pp. 175-208). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
32.
Graen, G.B., & Uhl-Bien, M. ( 1995). Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective . Leadership Quarterly, 6, 219-247.
33.
Green, S.G., & Liden, R.C. ( 1980). Contextual and attributional influences on control decisions . Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 453-458.
34.
Heneman, R.L., Greenberger, D.B., & Anonyuo, C. ( 1989). Attributions and exchanges: The effects of interpersonal factors on the diagnosis of employee performance. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 466-476.
35.
Janis, I., & Mann, L. ( 1977). Decision making. New York: Free Press.
36.
Jehn, K.A., Chadwick, C., & Thatcher, S.M.B. (1997). To agree or not to agree: The effects of value congruence, individual demographic dissimilarity, and conflict on workgroup outcomes. International Journal of Conflict Management, 8, 287-305.
37.
Judd, C.M., & Kenny, D.A. ( 1981). Process analysis: Estimating mediation in treatment evaluations . Evaluation Review, 5, 602-619.
38.
Kacmar, K.M., Zivnuska, S., Witt, L.A., & Gully, S.M. ( 2003). The interactive effect of leader-member exchange and communication frequency on performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 764-772.
39.
Koegel, R.L., Dyer, K., & Bell, L.K. ( 1987). The influence of child-preferred activities on autistic children’s social behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 243-252.
40.
Knowlton, W.A., & Mitchell, T.R. (1980). Effects of causal attributions on a supervisor’s evaluation of subordinate performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 459-466.
41.
Kramer, M.W. ( 1995). A longitudinal study of superior-subordinate communication during job transfers. Human Communication Research, 22, 39-64.
42.
Kraimer, M.L., Wayne, S.L., & Jaworski, R.A. (2001). Sources of support and expatriate performance: The mediating role of expatriate adjustment. Personnel Psychology, 54, 71-99.
43.
Kudisch, J.D., Fortunado, V.J., & Smith, A.F.R. ( 2006). Contextual and individual difference factors predicting individuals’ desire to provide upward feedback. Group & Organization Management, 31, 503-529.
44.
Lam, W., Huang, X., & Snape, E. ( 2007). Feedback-seeking behavior and leader-member exchange: Do supervisor-attributed motives matter? Academy of Management Journal, 50, 348-363.
45.
Larson, J.R. ( 1989). The dynamic interplay between employees’ feedback-seeking strategies and supervisors’ delivery of performance feedback. Academy of Management Review, 14, 408-422.
46.
Levy, P.E.Albright, M.D., Cawley, B.D., & Williams, J.R. (1995). Situational and individual determinants of feedback seeking: A closer look at the process. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 62, 23-37.
47.
Levy, P.E., Cober, R.T., & Miller, T. ( 2002). The effect of transformational and transactional leadership perceptions on feedback-seeking intentions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 1703-1720.
48.
Liden, R.C., & Maslyn, J.M. ( 1998). Multidimensionality of leader-member exchange: An empirical assessment through scale development. Journal of Management , 24, 43-72.
49.
Liden, R.C., Wayne, S.J., & Stilwell, D. ( 1993). A longitudinal study on the early development of leader-member exchanges. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 662-674.
50.
Maslyn, J.M., & Uhl-Bien, M. ( 2001). Leader-member exchange and its dimensions: Effects of self-effort and other’s effort on relationship quality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 697-708.
51.
Masterson, S.S., Lewis, K., Goldman, B.M., & Taylor, S.M. ( 2000). Integrating justice and social exchange: The differing effects of fair procedures and treatment on work procedures. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 738-748.
52.
Mayer, R.C., Davis, J.H., & Schoorman, D. ( 1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20, 709-734.
53.
Miller, C.E., & Levy, P.E. ( 1997, April). Contextual and individual antecedents of feedback-seeking behavior. Paper presented at the National Meeting of the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, St. Louis, MO.
54.
Morrison, E.W., & Bies, R.J. ( 1991). Impression management in the feedback-seeking process: A literature review and research agenda. Academy of Management Review, 16, 522-541.
55.
Moss, S.E., & Sanchez, J.I. ( 2004). Are your employees avoiding you? Managerial strategies for closing the feedback gap. Academy of Management Executive , 18, 32-46.
56.
Moss, S.E., Valenzi, E.R., & Taggart, W. ( 2003). Are you hiding from your boss? The development of a taxonomy and instrument to assess the feedback management behaviors of good and bad performers. Journal of Management, 29, 487-510.
57.
Mueller, B.H., & Lee, J. ( 2002). Leader-member exchange and organizational communication satisfaction in multiple contexts. Journal of Business Communication , 39, 220-244.
58.
Northcraft, G.B., & Ashford, S.J. ( 1990). The preservation of self in everyday life: The effects of performance expectations and feedback context on feedback inquiry. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 47, 42-64.
59.
Paglis, L.L. & Green, S.G. ( 2002). Both sides now: Supervisor and subordinate perspectives on relationship quality. Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 32, 250-276.
60.
Podsakoff, P.M., Bommer, W.H., Podsakoff, N.P., & Mackenzie, S.B. (2006). Relationships between leader reward and punishment behavior and subordinate attitudes, perceptions and behaviors: A meta-analytic review of existing and new research. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99, 113-142.
61.
Scandura, T.A., & Graen, G.B. ( 1984). Moderating effects of initial leader-member exchange status on the effects of a leadership intervention. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 428-436.
62.
Schriesheim, C.A., Castro, S.L., & Yammarino, F.J. (2000). Investigating contingencies: An examination of the span of supervision and upward controlling-ness on leader-member exchange using traditional and multivariate within- and between-entities analysis . Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 659-677.
63.
Schyns, B., Paul, T., Mohr, G., & Blank, H. ( 2005). Comparing antecedents and consequences of leader-member exchange in a German working context to findings in the U.S. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 14, 1-22.
64.
Seers, A., & Graen, G.B. ( 1984). The dual attachment concept: A longitudinal investigation of the combination of task characteristics and leader-member exchange. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 33, 283-306.
65.
Senge, P.M. ( 1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday .
66.
Settoon, R.P., Bennett, N., & Liden, R.C. ( 1996). Social exchange in organizations: Perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange, and employee reciprocity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 219-227.
67.
Tata, J. ( 2002). The influence of managerial accounts on employees’ reactions to negative feedback. Group & Organization Management , 27, 480-503.
68.
Tepper, B.J. ( 2000). Consequences of abusive supervision. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 178-190.
69.
Trahan, W.A., & Steiner, D.D. ( 1994). Factors affecting supervisors’ use of disciplinary actions following poor performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 129-139.
70.
Tuckey, M., Brewer, N., & Williamson, P. (2002). The influence of motives and goal orientation on feedback seeking. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75, 195-216.
71.
Tsui, A.S., & O’Reilly, C.A., III. (1989). Beyond simple demographic effects: The importance of relational demography in superior-subordinate dyads. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 402-423.
72.
Turban, D.B., & Jones, A.P. ( 1988). Supervisor-subordinate similarity: Types, effects and mechanisms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 228-234.
73.
Vancouver, J.B., & Morrison, E.W. (1995). Feedback inquiry: The effect of source attributes and individual differences. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 62, 276-285.
74.
VandeWalle, D., Ganesan, S., Challagalla, G.N., & Brown, S.P. ( 2000). An integrated model of feedback-seeking behavior: Disposition, context and cognition. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 996-1003.
75.
Waldron, V.R. ( 1991). Achieving communication goals in superior-subordinate relationships: The multi-functionality of upward maintenance tactics. Communication Monographs, 58, 289-306.
76.
Wayne, S.J., & Green, S.A. ( 1993). The effects of leader-member exchange on employee citizenship and impression management behavior. Human Relations, 46, 1431-1440.
77.
Wilhelm, C.C., Herd, A.M., & Steiner, D.D. ( 1993). Attributional conflict between managers and subordinates: An investigation of leader-member exchange effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 14, 531-544.
78.
Williams, J.R., Miller, C.E., Steelman, L.A., & Levy, P.E. ( 1999). Increasing feedback seeking in public contexts: It takes two (or more) to tango. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 969-976.
79.
Wu, T.Y. & Hu, C. ( 2009). Abusive supervision and employee emotional exhaustion: Dispositional antecedents and boundaries. Group & Organization Management, 34, 143-169.
