Critical Consciousness and Decent Work: Evidence of its Moderating Role in Psychology of Working Theory

Psychology of Working Theory

Psychology of Working Theory (PWT) is a framework for understanding work and career experiences whose central objective is to examine the work lives of all people, including those in marginalized, precarious, or structurally disadvantaged contexts (Duffy et al., 2016). The theory emphasizes the investigation of antecedents and consequences of access to Decent Work (De Andrade et al., 2024; Duffy et al., 2024; Erby & Blustein, 2025).

Building on these premises, this study advances the thesis that CC is a theoretically necessary moderator within PWT when applied to contexts marked by structural inequality. Because PWT assumes that volition, adaptability, and decent work are shaped by contextual constraints, examining how individuals critically interpret and respond to these constraints is essential for understanding vocational development in settings such as Brazil. Accordingly, the present study tests how each dimension of CC may amplify, buffer, or leave unchanged the effects of structural barriers on PWT pathways.

PWT conceptualizes Decent Work as a pathway to overall well-being and fulfillment at work (Duffy et al., 2024). In this framework, Decent Work must satisfy basic needs: survival, social connection, and self-determination (De Andrade et al., 2024; Kim et al., 2025). In addition to examining the outcomes of Decent Work, PWT also investigates its predictors, including contextual factors (economic constraints and marginalization) and individual factors (volition and career adaptability) (Duffy et al., 2016, 2024). These relations are conditioned by sociopolitical factors, making the examination of moderators essential for understanding how structural constraints shape vocational development.

Recent studies grounded in PWT have investigated both the psychometric properties of its measures and the theoretical relationships it proposes across diverse sociocultural contexts. In Turkey, the structural model demonstrated coherence in the associations between contextual antecedents and the psychological consequences of Decent Work (Kim et al., 2025).

Similarly, in Brazil, the model’s structural validity was confirmed, with significant differences between groups from different social classes. Participants from lower social classes reported significantly lower scores on variables such as job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and perceived access to Decent Work (De Andrade et al., 2024). In China, the model was applied to explain turnover intention as a consequence of Decent Work, providing strong support for the roles of social class and volition (Wang et al., 2019).

In a recent theoretical review, Duffy et al. (2024) highlighted conceptual and empirical limitations in applying its constructs to minority populations. They recommend refinements in the formulation and measurement of variables such as volition, social support, and career adaptability, arguing that these elements should be understood in a situated and relational manner. By questioning the use of measures that assume agency or homogeneous access to resources, they reinforce the need to broaden the scope of the theory, with particular attention to the in-depth analysis of moderating variables.

Within the theoretical framework of PWT, four moderators have been proposed to account for variability in the indirect effects of contextual barriers on access to decent work: social support, proactive personality, economic conditions, and CC (Duffy et al., 2016, 2024). Rooted in Freirean thought, CC has emerged as a theoretically promising mechanism for understanding how workers interpret and respond to structural barriers (Kim & Allan, 2021; Pedruzzi et al., 2024). This theoretical configuration makes PWT particularly suited for examining CC as a contextual moderator in Brazil, where structural barriers are historically entrenched.

Critical Consciousness

Critical consciousness (CC), conceived within a rational scientific paradigm and operationalized through psychometric assessment, refers to the capacity to critically reflect on social reality, identify oppressive structures, and recognize avenues for sociopolitical transformation (Diemer, Frisby, et al., 2020, Diemer, Pinedo, et al., 2020; Pedruzzi et al., 2024; Rapa et al., 2020). Although the construct is now widely employed in psychological models, it original formulation stems from Paulo Freire’s emancipatory pedagogy, which conceptualizes conscientização as a sociopolitical process through which historically oppressed groups critically examine their material conditions and articulate pathways for collective change (Freire, 2021). Thus, CC cannot be reduced to individual differences; rather, it emerges from the dynamic interplay between individuals and broader social structures.

When incorporated into Vocational Psychology and operationalized as a measurable construct, CC begins to interface with explanatory models oriented by latent variables, structural relations, and individual psychological processes (Duffy et al., 2016, 2024). This transposition requires recognizing that each dimension of CC reflects distinct modes of relating individuals to social structures, which may interact differentially with the mechanisms proposed by the PWT. Accordingly, it is important to understand CC as a process that simultaneously articulates sociopolitical dimensions (Freire, 2021) and psychological dimensions (Pedruzzi & De Andrade, 2024), whose manifestation depends on the structural conditions that shape the experience of work.

Efforts to develop psychological instruments have been concentrated primarily in the United States, where CC has been operationalized in three dimensions: Critical Reflection, Critical Motivation, and Critical Action (Diemer, Frisby, et al., 2020, Diemer, Pinedo, et al., 2020; Pedruzzi & De Andrade, 2024; Rapa et al., 2020). Critical Reflection involves the cognitive analysis of inequalities and tends to operate at the interpretive level of marginalization experiences, influencing how workers perceive their agency (volition). Critical Motivation encompasses ethical orientation, purpose, and commitment to social transformation, aligning with constructs of agency and sense of purpose that are relevant for vocational development. Critical Action refers to concrete sociopolitical engagement, which may strengthen adaptive resources but can also expose individuals to additional psychological costs in contexts of heightened oppression.

Recent research has expanded the empirical understanding of CC across diverse cultural contexts, particularly among historically marginalized groups (Desmarais & Christophe, 2024; Singh & Awachie, 2025; Wan & Xiong, 2025). In China, Chen et al. (2022) analyzed a representative sample of social workers and found that CC – especially its reflection and action dimensions – moderated the effects of role stress on burnout. They emphasized that CC served as a personal resource capable of preserving well-being at work and sustaining professional commitment. Further evidence from interviews with university students from rural backgrounds indicated that CC emerged as a response to place-based disadvantage and limited social capital, fostering engagement in vocational trajectories with collective meaning (Wan & Xiong, 2025).

A study of Black and Latino adolescents in the United States found that high levels of Critical Action were associated with increased symptoms of anxiety and depression, suggesting that CC may contribute to emotional distress when not accompanied by institutional or community support (Desmarais & Christophe, 2024). Cadenas and McWhirter (2022) emphasize that, in contexts of persistent oppression, consciousness-raising without concrete avenues for collective action can lead to frustration and psychological distress. Singh and Awachie (2025), examined aspects of CC among Black, Indigenous, and trans and nonbinary people of color, noting that the development of CC is intertwined with experiences of pain, but also with meaning-making and belonging, provided it is supported by networks of care and identity affirmation.

Taken together, these findings indicate that CC operates in an ambivalent manner (Cadenas & McWhirter, 2022; Desmarais & Christophe, 2024; Singh & Awachie, 2025), functioning at times as a protective resource and at other times as an additional source of psychological strain, depending on the sociopolitical conditions and the opportunities for collective action available. This ambivalence is central to the PWT, as it suggests that each dimension of CC may amplify, neutralize, or buffer the effects of structural barriers within vocational processes.

Research in this field has gained renewed relevance with the growing interest in CC as a theoretical moderator within Work Psychology and in cross-cultural studies (Chen et al., 2022; Pedruzzi & De Andrade, 2024), particularly within PWT (Duffy et al., 2024), which emphasizes understanding work experiences situated in contexts of oppression and marginalization. When situated within PWT, the three dimensions of CC do not operate as a homogeneous moderating mechanism, but rather as distinct socio-psychological capacities that can amplify, buffer, or intensify the effects of structural barriers on vocational outcomes (Duffy et al., 2016, 2024). This perspective positions CC as a central moderating process shaping how workers interpret and respond to contextual constraints, thereby clarifying the conditions under which PWT pathways vary.

Present Study and Hypotheses

Brazil presents a labor context marked by persistent informality, unstable employment, and pronounced racial and class disparities (De Andrade et al., 2024). Historical inequalities rooted in slavery, regional inequities, and neoliberal labor reforms have produced a labor market in which access to rights, protections, and stable career opportunities is unevenly distributed (Nunes et al., 2025). These dynamics shape workers’ experiences of economic constraints and marginalization, making Brazil a critical context for examining CC as a potential resource within PWT. Freirean thought itself emerged from these sociopolitical conditions (Freire, 2021), suggesting that CC may operate differently in societies where oppression is both structurally embedded and historically contested.

Aiming to advance empirical evidence in Work Psychology (De Andrade et al., 2024; Duffy et al., 2024; Erby & Blustein, 2025; Kim et al., 2025), this study examined the associations between predictors of decent work and the moderating role of CC dimensions (Critical Reflection, Critical Motivation, and Critical Action) in the relationships between contextual factors (economic constraints and marginalization) and individual factors (career adaptability and volition), considered antecedents of Decent Work among Brazilian workers. These analyses offer an opportunity to examine whether CC explains why PWT pathways sometimes behave differently across sociopolitical contexts. By testing each dimension as a moderator, the study evaluates whether CC functions as a protective, neutral, or amplifying force in the face of structural barriers, an empirical question particularly relevant for Global South settings (Figure 1).OPEN IN VIEWER

Hypothesis 1 (H1) posits that CC functions as a psychological resource mitigating the effects of structural inequalities on career development and access to Decent Work. Specifically, Critical Reflection is expected to help preserve vocational agency through the reinterpretation of experiences of oppression. Pedruzzi and De Andrade (2024) found that higher levels of this dimension were associated with greater vocational clarity and expectations of decent work. Similarly, Chen et al. (2022) reported that Critical Reflection protected Chinese social workers against burnout. Thus, H1 proposes that Critical Reflection moderates the relationships between economic constraints or marginalization and the other variables in the model (H1A–H1F).

Hypothesis 2 (H2) posits that Critical Motivation reflects ethical engagement with social transformation. This dimension has been positively associated with Decent Work (Pedruzzi & De Andrade, 2024) and serves as a marker of commitment to collective values, sustaining professional purpose even in oppressive contexts (Cadenas & McWhirter, 2022). Accordingly, H2 proposes that Critical Motivation moderates the effects of contextual and individual barriers on vocational outcomes (H2A–H2F).

Hypothesis 3 (H3) posits that Critical Action plays an ambivalent role, with mixed evidence reported in prior studies (Desmarais & Christophe, 2024; Singh & Awachie, 2025). When supported by networks of care, it promotes belonging and meaning-making (Singh & Awachie, 2025), but may lead to psychological distress in contexts where voices are silenced (Desmarais & Christophe, 2024). Thus, H3 proposes that Critical Action moderates the relationships between structural inequalities and the outcomes of the model (H3A–H3F).

Participants

The inclusion criteria for the study were: (i) being at least 18 years old, and (ii) being employed at the time of completing the questionnaire, either formally or informally (with formal employment contracts used as the reference). Due to accessibility and convenience criteria, participants were located in Southeastern Brazil. Two waves of data collection were conducted, considering the study’s inclusion criteria. After analyzing missing data, 555 valid responses were obtained. Among participants, 62.5% (n = 348) were women, and the mean age was 35.8 years (SD = 14.3). Regarding family income, most reported earning around three times the minimum wage (R$1,320.00 in 2023). In terms of marital status, 289 were single (51.9%), 179 were married (32.1%), 38 were in a stable union (6.8%), 14 were divorced (2.5%), 27 were separated (4.8%), and 8 were widowed (1.4%). Finally, 38.1% (n = 212) reported fearing job loss within the next six months, and 14% (n = 78) held more than one paid job.

Ethical Procedures, Data Collection, and Analysis

Data collection began after approval was obtained from the authors’ Institutional Ethics Committee. Data were collected in person between July 2023 and March 2024. Recruitment took place in high-traffic public spaces to facilitate access to participants from diverse social groups and educational backgrounds. Trained research assistants approached potential participants through direct invitation, provided a brief explanation of the study’s objectives, and verified eligibility based on the inclusion criteria prior to participation.

All data were collected in person using printed questionnaires. Prior to participation, respondents signed the informed consent form. The average completion time was approximately 20 minutes. Given that a portion of the study population experienced various forms of social inequality, including disparities in educational attainment, supportive tools were implemented during questionnaire administration. These included auxiliary color-coded Likert scales and pre-structured sentence examples designed to facilitate the response process and enhance comprehension of the questionnaire items. To ensure participation among individuals with lower levels of formal education or reading comprehension difficulties, the research team employed additional supportive procedures, such as providing standardized explanations, without influencing participants’ responses. These measures aimed to minimize comprehension biases and increase the representativeness of the sample.

Statistical analyses were conducted in three main stages. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed with the R-DWLS estimator using JASP software (JASP Team, 2025) to verify the internal structure of the instruments. Second, descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) and internal consistency indicators (McDonald’s; ω) were calculated, along with Pearson’s correlations among the constructs. Third, direct effects were tested using structural equation modeling with multiple linear regressions. Model fit was evaluated using CFI and TLI >0.90, RMSEA <0.10, and χ²/df < 5.00 (Brown, 2015). Finally, moderating effects of the CC dimensions were examined using the PROCESS macro (version 4.2) in SPSS (Hayes, 2022), with Bootstrap resampling (5,000 samples; 95% CI). Variables were mean-centered, and probing analysis examined conditional effects at three levels of the moderator (16th, 50th, and 84th percentiles).

Instruments

Data were collected using a form comprising the following:

a) Sociodemographic questionnaire: gathered information on age, gender, marital status, income, education level, city of residence, and work experiences.

Descriptive Analyses

Initially, the reliability coefficients of the instruments, as well as descriptive statistics and correlations among the constructs, were analyzed (Table 1). All internal consistency values were equal to or greater than 0.70, which is considered adequate for research purposes. The strongest positive correlations were observed between volition and economic constraints (r = 0.39; p < 0.01), volition and marginalization (r = 0.31; p < 0.01), Critical Reflection and Critical Action (r = 0.39; p < 0.01), and marginalization and economic constraints (r = 0.31; p < 0.01), all above 0.30.

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Table 1.

Internal Consistency, Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among Variables

Variables	ω	M (SD)	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1 CR	0.93	4.40 (1.40)	-
2 CM	0.77	4.56 (0.66)	0.10*	-
3 CA	0.85	2.16 (0.79)	0.39***	−0.40	-
4 EC	0.91	3.05 (1.61)	0.03	−0.04	−0.02	-
5 MG	0.92	2.64 (1.61)	0.21***	−0.06	0.16***	0.31***	-
6 WV	0.85	3.10 (0.70)	0.12**	0.07	0.01	0.39***	0.31***	-
7 CAdapt	0.91	3.61 (0.77)	−0.01	0.08	0.25***	−0.21***	−0.13**	−0.09*	-
8 DW	0.70	4.09 (1.00)	−0.13**	0.05	−0.06	−0.06	−0.09*	−0.04	0.09*	-

Structural Equation Modeling: Testing PWT Model

According to the theoretical model of PWT (Duffy et al., 2016), direct effects among contextual and individual variables, as well as between contextual variables and Decent Work, were examined using linear regression analysis (Figure 2). These analyses provided the basis for the subsequent conditional moderation tests.OPEN IN VIEWER

The fit indices of the structural model were adequate: [x² = 2979.98; df = 809; X2/df = 3.68; CFI = 0.90; TLI = 0.90; RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.057 (0.055–0.059)]. Economic constraints negatively predicted volition (B = −0.51; p < 0.001), career adaptability (B = −0.20; p < 0.001), and Decent Work (B = −0.13; p < 0.05). Marginalization also had negative effects on volition (B = −0.20; p < 0.001) and Decent Work (B = −0.12; p < 0.05), but its effect on career adaptability was not significant (B = −0.07; p > 0.05). Finally, only volition was positively associated with Decent Work (B = 0.39; p < 0.001), indicating its central role in mediating the contextual effects on this outcome.

Analysis of Conditional Effects

Based on the previous results, the final stage of data analysis examined the conditional moderation effects of the dimensions of CC – Critical Reflection, Critical Motivation, and Critical Action (Table 2).

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Table 2.

Conditional Effects of Critical Consciousness

Variables and relationships	Unstandardized estimate	LIIC-LSIC	p	SE	R2
EC x critical reflection → WV	−0.09	[−0.14; −0.03]	<0.05	0.03	0.11 (***)
EC x critical reflection → CAdapt	0.01	[−0.03; 0.03]	0.81	0.02	0.04
EC x critical reflection → DW	−0.02	[−0.05; 0.02]	0.43	0.02	0.02
MG x critical reflection → WV	−0.04	[−0.11; 0.02]	0.19	0.03	0.03
MG x critical reflection → CAdapt	0.00	[−0.03; 0.03]	0.89	0.02	0.02
MG x critical reflection → DW	−0.05	[−0.09; −0.01]	<0.05	0.02	0.03 (***)
EC x critical motivation → WV	0.04	[−0.08; 0.16]	0.54	0.06	0.09
EC x critical motivation → CAdapt	0.01	[−0.04; 0.08]	0.58	0.03	0.05
EC x critical motivation → DW	0.09	[0.01; 0.17]	<0.05	0.04	0.01 (***)
MG x critical motivation → WV	−0.00	[−0.16; 0.14]	0.90	0.08	0.03
MG x critical motivation → CAdapt	0.05	[−0.03; 0.12]	0.24	0.04	0.02
MG x critical motivation → DW	0.07	[−0.03; 0.17]	0.15	0.05	0.01
EC x critical action → WV	−0.07	[−0.16; 0.03]	0.17	0.05	0.09
EC x critical action → CAdapt	0.07	[0.02; 0.11]	<0.05	0.02	0.12 (***)
EC x critical action → DW	0.02	[−0.05; 0.08]	0.61	0.03	0.01
MG x critical action → WV	−0.13	[−0.22; −0.04]	<0.05	0.05	0.04 (***)
MG x critical action → CAdapt	0.03	[−0.01; 0.08]	0.13	0.02	0.10
MG x critical action → DW	−0.04	[−0.09; 0.02]	0.24	0.03	0.01

Significant moderation effects were identified, indicating the differential roles of the dimensions of CC on contextual relationships. Critical Reflection negatively moderated the relationships between economic constraints and volition (B = −0.09; p < 0.05) as well as between marginalization and Decent Work (B = −0.05; p < 0.05). Critical Motivation attenuated the negative association between economic constraints and Decent Work (B = 0.09; p < 0.05), suggesting a protective effect of this dimension. Critical Action moderated the relationship between economic constraints and career adaptability (B = 0.07; p < 0.05), and negatively moderated the relationship between marginalization and volition (B = −0.13; p < 0.05), revealing an ambivalent role that depends on the context of the adversity.

According to Hayes’ (2022) guidelines, we conducted the analysis of moderation effects using the values corresponding to the lower 16th percentile, the median 64th percentile, and the upper 16th percentile of the moderating variables (Table 3).

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Table 3.

Probing Analysis

	Coefficient (B)	SE	t	p	LIIC-LSIC
(i) EC x critical reflection → WV
−1.647	−0.121	0.068	−1.782	0.075	[−0.254; 0.012]
0.352	−0.291	0.039	−7.499	<0.001	[−0.368; −0.215]
1.477	−0.387	0.053	−7.294	<0.001	[−0.491; −0.282]
(ii) MG x critical reflection → DW
−1.647	0.048	0.051	0.949	0.343	[−0.051; 0.148]
0.352	−0.042	0.027	−1.577	0.115	[−0.095; 0.010]
1.477	−0.093	0.035	−2.621	<0.05	[−0.162; −0.023]
(iii) EC x critical motivation → DW
−0.416	−0.075	0.032	−2.339	<0.05	[−0.137; −0.012]
0.012	−0.037	0.026	−1.405	0.161	[−0.089; 0.015]
0.441	0.001	0.031	0.026	0.979	[−0.061; 0.062]
(iv) EC x critical action → CAdapt
−0.830	−0.151	0.027	−5.687	<0.001	[−0.204; −0.099]
−0.052	−0.099	0.019	−5.260	<0.001	[−0.137; −0.063]
0.837	−0.041	0.027	−1.513	0.131	[−0.094; 0.012]
(v) MG x critical action → WV
−0.830	−0.039	0.058	−0.672	0.502	[−0.152; 0.075]
−0.052	−0.143	0.041	−3.480	<0.001	[−0.223; −0.062]
0.837	−0.261	0.053	−4.884	<0.001	[−0.366; −0.156]

Finally, Figure 3 presents the conditional effects graphically.OPEN IN VIEWER

Regarding the conditional effects, Critical Reflection negatively moderated the relationship between economic constraints and volition, such that at moderate (B = −0.29; p < 0.001) and high (B = −0.39; p < 0.001) levels, the negative effect was stronger. In other words, higher levels of Critical Reflection intensified the extent to which economic constraints reduced perceptions of career choice. Critical Reflection also moderated the relationship between marginalization and Decent Work, with the negative effect reaching significance only at high levels of Critical Reflection (B = −0.09; p < 0.05). This finding suggests that in contexts of greater awareness of injustice, marginalization may exert an even more negative influence on perceptions of decent work.

Critical motivation moderated the relationship between economic constraints and Decent Work, showing a significant effect at low levels of Critical Motivation (B = −0.08; p < 0.05). This indicates that when this psychological resource is limited, the negative impact of economic constraints on perceptions of decent work is stronger. In other words, workers with lower levels of Critical Motivation perceive the adverse effects of poverty on their work more strongly.

Finally, Critical Action moderated the relationship between economic constraints and career adaptability, with significant negative effects at both low (B = −0.15; p < 0.001) and moderate (B = −0.10; p < 0.001) levels. This suggests that when Critical Action is limited, financial hardship has a stronger negative impact on career adaptability. In the relationship between marginalization and volition, Critical Action intensified the negative effect of marginalization, particularly at moderate (B = −0.14; p < 0.001) and high (B = −0.26; p < 0.001) levels. These findings indicate that, without collective support, Critical Action may heighten distress and further weaken perceptions of career choice.

Practical Implications

Taken together, these findings reinforce that PWT requires explicit consideration of structural and sociopolitical inequalities to remain theoretically robust in Global South contexts. Brazil offers a paradigmatic case of how structural racism, economic precarity and uneven access to rights shape the functioning of vocational mechanisms. In this context, CC operates under conditions of weak institutional protections and limited opportunities for collective action, which helps explain why some of its dimensions amplify rather than mitigate the effects of structural barriers.

These results extend the applied relevance of PWT by demonstrating that sociopolitical context is not merely a background condition, but a constitutive element of how vocational mechanisms operate. Unlike traditional career theories historically grounded in relatively privileged populations, PWT was designed to center marginalized workers (Duffy et al., 2016, 2024). The present findings indicate that this commitment requires practitioners to attend carefully to how sociopolitical awareness interacts with material constraints in everyday work and career experiences.

From a practical standpoint, the findings suggest that career practitioners working with marginalized populations should approach critical consciousness as a differentiated process, rather than as a uniformly protective resource. Interventions that emphasize critical reflection alone may inadvertently intensify perceptions of constraint when opportunities for structural change are limited. Accordingly, career counseling practices should integrate reflective activities with collective and relational supports, such as group-based career interventions, community-anchored programs, or partnerships with advocacy and employment support services, in order to reduce isolation and frustration.

In addition, fostering critical motivation, through values clarification, purpose-oriented career exploration, and dialogue about social contribution, may help buffer the impact of economic constraints on perceptions of decent work. These strategies can support the construction of vocational meaning and sustain engagement even under conditions of material adversity. Practitioners should also be attentive to the potential emotional costs of critical action, particularly in contexts marked by weak institutional support, and incorporate strategies aimed at emotional regulation, social support, and collective efficacy when encouraging sociopolitical engagement.

Overall, these implications underscore that vocational development cannot be reduced to the strengthening of individual competencies alone. Effective interventions must recognize workers as relational, historical, and situated beings, whose career trajectories emerge from the dynamic interplay between individual agency and structural conditions (Pedruzzi & De Andrade, 2024). By integrating sociopolitical dimensions into assessment and intervention, career practitioners can more effectively support the pursuit of decent and dignified work in contexts of inequality.

Although not all expected hypotheses were supported, the present study expands PWT beyond its traditional frameworks (De Andrade et al., 2024; Duffy et al., 2024). The findings highlight the importance of integrating sociopolitical and cultural variables into the study of vocational development in Global South contexts (Ribeiro, 2023). Future research should examine how different stages of critical consciousness interact with other psychosocial resources, such as proactivity and social support. In addition, longitudinal and mixed-methods designs involving diverse populations, including Indigenous peoples, quilombolas (African-descendant communities in Brazil formed by descendants of enslaved people), migrants, and people with disabilities, can contribute to building a more plural Work Psychology committed to equity and social justice (Duffy et al., 2024).