Exploring Ethics and Client Work in Public Relations Education

Ethics in Public Relations Education

Ethics involves the “systematic analysis, the distinguishing of right from wrong, and determining the nature of what should be valued” (Bowen, 2007, p. 1). Because public relations professionals serve the public interest and advocate responsibly for those they represent, they are obligated to do so ethically (prsa.org). Ethics, however, should not be confused with industry practices or simply following the law (Parsons, 2008). To guide ethical practice, Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) offers a code of ethics and a statement of professional values featuring the tenets of advocacy, honesty, expertise, independence, loyalty, and fairness.

Public relations students often grapple with the industry’s reputation as unethical (Fullerton, McKinnon, & Kendrick, 2012; Martinson, 2004) and use of naïve or basic interpretation of ethical concepts (Martinson, 2004). For example, students may wrongfully perceive the advocacy role of public relations as unethical, relativistic, or “playing favorites” (Martinson, 2004, p. 2). Integrating ethics education into course content, therefore, plays an important role of increasing students’ awareness of ethical issues (Conway & Groshek, 2008), remediating students’ simple or idealistic ethical thinking (Plaisance, 2006), and shaping future professionals’ ethical leadership ability (Gale & Bunton, 2005).

Indeed, practitioners and educators identified ethics as one of the five most essential areas of public relations curriculum (DiStaso, Stacks, & Botan, 2009). Scholarship has recommended that ethics not only exist as a stand-alone course but also be integrated into all public relations courses (CPRE, 2015; Erzikova, 2010; Harrison, 1990). Ethics skills training in course content plays an especially key role in teaching professional ethics, helping students learn how to resolve moral conflicts (CPRE, 2015; Erzikova, 2010), and preparing students to take on more ethical and strategic workplace roles (DiStaso et al., 2009). Austin and Toth (2011), upon assessing public relations ethics education, recommended that ethics training draw upon a variety of disciplinary approaches, consider various cultural contexts, and integrate professional or “real-world” scenarios (pp. 509-512). Similarly, Plaisance (2006) suggested the use of ethics instruction to engage students’ analytical and critical thinking skills. Increasing students’ awareness and facility with ethics may increase students’ personal, moral, and professional development (Eschenfelder, 2011).

The process of teaching is inherently connected to the transmission of moral values including respect, objectivity, and integrity (Churchill, 1982; Ritter, 2006) and the development of moral character (Hunter, 2008). Scholars have identified techniques for teaching moral values and ethics throughout the public relations curriculum, including case studies (Cabot, 2005; Canary, 2007; Erzikova, 2010; Fullerton et al., 2012; Pauly & Hutchison, 2001), narrative inquiry (Eschenfelder, 2011), service learning or hands-on experience (Motley & Sturgill, 2013; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Waters & Burton, 2008), internships (Conway & Groshek, 2008), and class discussions (Conway & Groshek, 2008; Hutchison, 2002; Plaisance, 2006). Discussion-based class formats can be effective for engaging students in debate regarding ethical topics or teaching students about socially responsible campaigns (Hutchison, 2002). Case studies have been cited as an effective means of improving students’ moral reasoning, especially when the cases offer ethical dilemmas with which students can relate (Canary, 2007). Eschenfelder (2011), however, suggested that narrative inquiry transcends case studies by offering students richer opportunities for lived experience, personal interaction, and personal reflection.

As educators strive to bridge the gap between theory and practice, service learning techniques demonstrate considerable merit. Wandel (2005) suggested that service learning helps students to refine morals and values, learn responsibility and accountability for their actions, and improve problem solving and critical thinking skills. Applying Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development (e.g., Kohlberg, 1978, 1981; Kohlberg & Hersh, 1977), Waters and Burton (2008) found that service learning coursework advanced students’ moral development from a personal interest schema (lowest stage of moral reasoning) to a postconventional schema (highest stage of moral reasoning). Similarly, Motley and Sturgill (2013) found that students enrolled in a service learning course honed their understandings of diverse publics and their ethical responsibilities as communicators.

Service Learning in Public Relations

In response to concern that universities have become disconnected from their surrounding communities and produce little effect on students’ lives or society, the implementation of service learning pedagogies has grown immensely since the 1990s (Rocheleau, 2004; Speck & Hoppe, 2004). Grounded in the philosophy of John Dewey, service learning is an extension of experiential learning that stresses an understanding of one’s civic responsibility and community needs (Motley & Sturgill, 2013). It fulfills Dewey’s argument for “education of, by and for experience” (Dewey, 1963, p. 29, as cited in Rocheleau, 2004, p. 6). Through service learning, students engage in community service–based educational experiences for course credit, acquire values and skills, engage in meaningful self-reflection, and gain further awareness of course principles (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995; “What Is Service-Learning,” n.d.). University–community service learning relationships may be formed with governments, neighborhoods, funding sources, or clients (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995).

Service learning in public relations education involves student partnerships with community organizations as clients, professors, and classmates to produce meaningful communications research, strategy, or tactical tools (Benigni, Cheng, & Cameron, 2004; Texter & Smith, 1999; Wandel, 2005; Witmer, Silverman, & Gaschen, 2009). It is an opportunity for voluntarism and civic engagement as well as professional and personal development (Muturi et al., 2013). Werder and Strand (2011) described service learning as a positive experience for public relations students to think creatively; develop communication, teamwork, and practical skills; and learn how elements of a campaign come together. Reflection assignments are also incorporated to help students think critically about theoretical concepts and look back on the learning process or civic engagement (Lundy, 2008; Motley & Sturgill, 2014). Ultimately, client work is the central focus of service learning in public relations where the class is structured much like a public relations agency (Worley, 2001). When conducting client work, students are responsible for communicating professionally; discussing strategy, target audiences, or budgetary details; and offering final recommendations to the client via a formal presentation or report (Aldoory & Wrigley, 2000; Benigni et al., 2004).

Service learning and client work in public relations education offer multiple benefits and challenges. Beyond teaching students to produce and deliver professional caliber work, service learning was found to greatly improve students’ professionalism, interpersonal communication skills, client management skills, teamwork skills (Aldoory & Wrigley, 2000; Werder & Strand, 2011; Witmer et al., 2009; Worley, 2001), and critical thinking skills (Wandel, 2005). Furthermore, research has found that service learning enables students to put public relations concepts and practices into meaningful or “real world” contexts (Aldoory & Wrigley, 2000, p. 51; Muturi et al., 2013; Wandel, 2005; Werder & Strand, 2011; Witmer et al., 2009, p. 154) and supplements coursework while providing excellent career preparation (Bush, 2009). Complementing Dewey’s notion of community-focused and reflective education, Witmer et al. (2009) and Worley (2001) found that service learning can improve public relations students’ and instructors’ sense of civic responsibility and community service. Despite its many benefits, service learning offers challenges regarding students’ lack of professionalism or inability to maintain a proper client–team relationship, the extensive time commitment required to successfully manage service learning projects, and clients’ own lack of professionalism or responsiveness (Witmer et al., 2009; Worley, 2001).

Sample

Thirty public relations students at a private university in the Northeast, a private university in the Midwest, and a public university in the South were interviewed for this institutional review board (IRB)–approved study. Students were recruited using purposive and snowball sampling methods via an email recruitment letter. First, students who had previously completed a public relations campaigns class with a service learning–based client work component were invited to participate. Half of the participants had previously taken a course with the researcher, whereas other participants had previously taken similarly structured courses at the two other universities not taught by the researcher. Next, a snowball sample was achieved as participants recommended students who had also taken a public relations campaigns course with a service learning–based client work component. Ultimately, all participants in the sample completed service learning work for a not-for-profit “client” ranging from organ donation awareness, fair housing advocacy, climate change education, bone marrow donation, or disability support services.

Eight males and 22 females, 24 of whom were Caucasian American, three of whom were African American, two of whom was Asian American, and one of whom was Hispanic American, formed the resulting sample. The majority of the students were fourth-year undergraduate students between 21 to 23 years of age; however, four graduate students at the private Northeastern university who had previously taken the researcher’s public relations campaigns course also participated. Ultimately, participants ranged in age from late 20s to early 50s. All participants were assigned a pseudonym to maintain anonymity.

In regard to knowledge of ethics, none of the participants had previously taken a course that addressed public relations ethics. Participants did receive some instruction on public relations ethics, industry codes of ethics, and professionalism during their respective campaigns classes. Thus, participants had a minimal baseline knowledge of ethics and client work in public relations prior to taking part in the study.

Procedure

Semistructured, in-depth interviews were conducted by the researcher using an interview protocol featuring rapport-building, open-ended, and specific questions in a predetermined order (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Interviews were recorded, ranged from 30 to 90 min, and were conducted face-to-face at a location agreed upon by the researcher and participant. Telephone interviews were also conducted in circumstances where the students’ geographic location differed from the researcher’s. Students were acquainted to the interview process with rapport-building questions, such as “What did you like best about the public relations client work you did?” and “What skills or knowledge did you gain from the service learning client work experience?” Next, open-ended questions, such as “Tell me about the types of ethical decisions you made while working for your client,” “What ethical values were associated with the client work you conducted?” “How did your own notion of ethics factor into the client work you did?” “After completing this service learning opportunity, what does ‘public relations ethics’ mean to you?” and “How has this client work prepared you to enter the public relations industry?” were used to explore students’ meaning-making of public relations client work and ethics. Probes and follow-up questions, such as “Why?” “Can you expand on that?” or “Can you please give me an example of . . .,” were used to elicit additional description or context from students’ responses to questions.

Data Analysis

The author applied a thematic analysis method to analyze each fully transcribed interview for themes (Boyatzis, 1998). Transcripts were read line-by-line to create a list of themes that emerged organically and inductively during the review process. Themes were then assigned corresponding codes that applied to each research question. In addition, the researcher wrote observer comments during the transcript typing and coding process, and engaged in reflexive dialogue with other scholars to critically explore personal biases and interpretations of the data.

Being Honest and Truthful

Participants described ethics in the context of client work as a function of one’s duty to be honest, truthful, and transparent. Through the service work they performed for their clients, they learned that honesty was an ethical practice they could easily apply. Combining these elements, Mary said, “ethics means being completely transparent. Basically just being honest every step of the way. Making yourself available to communicate.” Similarly, Jenny explained, “When I think of ethics, I think of legitimacy. How truthful it is. Everything you do has to abide by that. It has to be legit in terms of truth.”

When probed about “being honest and truthful,” students described it as maintaining transparency while not lying to a client. As such, participants’ comments reflected Kantian ethics which prioritizes communicating with respect for individuals (i.e., clients) as ends who are capable of making autonomous and rational decisions (Kant, 1785/2002). With a literal interpretation of honesty as “not lying” and remaining truthful, Catherine shared her sense of duty to communicate honestly:

I think ethics is just being honest and open and truthful with your client. You can’t obviously lie about what you are doing. Or, if a client asks you to do something you don’t think is appropriate or going against PRSA guidelines or values, then you have . . . to make sure that you are being truthful, loyal and honest throughout the entire process.

Similarly, Daniel referenced concepts of transparency when discussing honesty in ethical campaign messaging. He shared, “You always have to think about when you are writing out your message . . . You can’t lie and you have to be open with your audience and be transparent.” In contrast, Nina emphasized the consequences of lying when conducting client work: “I care about the way it reflects me. In terms of ethics, I feel like it’s important to always tell the truth. If you lie, you are always going to have to keep up with that lie and it’s not worth it.”

Respect

Participants perceived that ethics and client work involved understanding when to communicate in a way that recognizes the dignity and respect of individuals, in alignment with Kantian ethics (Kant, 1785/2002). Ellie described prioritizing respectfulness while serving a client benefiting people with disabilities. She shared how she and her teammates “were ethical in terms of the way we phrased things . . . We wanted to make sure we understood and respected the types of disabilities of the people we were representing.” Likewise, Renata, whose client was a not-for-profit advocating for organ donation, also described choosing campaign tactics in a way that respected the dignity of target publics:

So we had to find ways to represent the organization in an ethical way . . . [City] hosts the rodeo every year . . . everyone in my team said, “If we have a booth there it would be great, we will get brand recognition because they will see us.” But you had to be aware of the setting. It wasn’t appropriate to communicate about organ donation in a carnival atmosphere.

Renata’s team instead created an informative coloring book to educate target publics about organ donation.

Following One’s Personal Convictions

For participants, ethics in the context of client work was deeply tied to personal convictions. Participants utilized terms such as “my moral compass,” “my gut instinct,” or “my personal code of ethics.” Jessie, who utilized the “gut” reference, explained ethics as follows: “Am I doing something that I feel in my gut I wouldn’t want my mom or someone else knowing I was doing? If I were ashamed to tell someone else, I would know that it was bad ethics.” Invoking a moral compass metaphor, Kent stated, “I think ethics is pretty much an adherence to a moral compass. I think that as a public relations professional—often times the work that you are doing may conflict with what you deem to be moral or ethical.” Participants often contemplated situations in which a client’s industry conflicted with their moral beliefs. In such cases, participants suggested that they would decline working for that client. Katie explained, “I don’t know if you should take on a client that you don’t ethically believe in. Yes, you’re supposed to consider the client’s ethics, but you always have to stand true to what you think is right.” Jack elaborated on this by sharing his opposition of the tobacco industry, but hinting that professionals may be called to advocate on behalf of a client without abandoning ethical beliefs. He shared,

I refuse to work on tobacco! So there are certain industries I won’t touch because I hate tobacco and I won’t pitch to that industry. But as a PR pro, you are forced to sell stories that aren’t necessarily newsworthy and you will be fired or the agency will be fired . . . You need to be ethical within yourself.

Bracketing Personal Convictions

Conversely, some students perceived that ethics in client work involved “sweeping aside” one’s ethical convictions. This was prominent among students whose political or religious ideologies differed from the clients they represented. One student shared her admiration of a teammate who “bracketed” her political viewpoints to advocate effectively on behalf of a client advocating for fair housing. Sari shared, “She just went to work and that’s the bottom line. She approached the political difference in the most professional manner possible. You have to sweep aside your own values when it gets into issues like welfare.” Similarly, Allison explained her interpretation that ethics meant putting personal beliefs aside:

I was biting my tongue a lot because I was communicating about something I didn’t believe in . . . I didn’t want to be unethical and give up because I don’t believe in it, but at the same time I said, “this is a job.” Your personal ethics have to come out of that in that kind of situation.

Only one student associated the bracketing of personal values with the concept of advocacy. Elizabeth, like many students, shared her personal opposition to the client’s mission of promoting affordable housing, yet she explained how ethics in the context of client work often means advocating for her client and their needs. She said,

The biggest thing about ethics that I got out of this course is realizing just how different everyone is and realizing that my idea of advocating for someone is so different from what they want. I had to listen to [the client] and realize that advocating for them is what they need. Advocating for them is what I need to do.

Balancing Personal and Client Ethical Values

Drawing upon the two themes above, some students perceived that ethics in the context of client work involved balancing one’s personal ethical values with a client’s ethical values. Haddie interpreted this ethical balance by stating,

What is ethically right and what is morally right blur at times. You have to look at what is considered acceptable and what is not, and what different behaviors are considered right, and what beliefs you encounter, and take those and compare them to the ethics of what the client believes in and what they think is right.

Similarly, Ellie described the balance as considering not only individual and client ethical values but also target publics’ values or needs: “It’s all about finding a mix of both and working with what you believe is ethical and what the client believes is ethical and putting that in to play and finding common ground.” To accomplish this, Ellie described how her team discussed their ethical values openly, aligned campaign strategies with the client’s mission statement, and sought out target publics’ perspectives and feedback during the campaign research and planning processes. Some students acknowledged that such a balance was difficult to achieve and should be addressed early on in client work. Nate, for example, said,

I think that students and professionals are constantly bombarded with these crossroads. Ultimately, it’s best for the PR strategist to—it’s up to them to recognize potential areas where ethics may be lacking and address those concerns with a client ahead of time and advise upon them.

In response to the second research question, themes arose depicting client work as preparing students to be accountable, deliver their best work to the client, utilize the support of mentors, and understand that ethicality takes practice.

Accountability

Participants perceived that client work prepared them to be ethical professionals by offering opportunities to demonstrate accountability. Accountability became especially apparent when students realized their work had meaningful consequences on their clients or publics. This occurred, as Allison explained, when she realized that “This is my job! This is what I need to do, and I need to help them.” Similarly, James felt that accountability involved prioritizing client work and meeting client expectations in an ethical manner. He explained,

Just getting used to that attitude, you know, of the clients who don’t care how much school work you have or how much you have to study for finals . . . That real world experience while working ethically with the clients definitely prepared us.

Accountability was learned and demonstrated differently among students. Lydia, for example, expressed how client work prepared her to follow through on what she promised to a client. She said,

I found out how much accountability all these things will hold. Ethics has been really important. Saying you are going to do something then doing it and putting in the time . . . If you say you are going to go, go.

Tyler, however, said that client work taught him about “having accountability for your own work—such as not taking pictures without permission, always citing your work, or not asking leading questions during interviews.” Indeed, several participants indicated that they learned accountability by demonstrating thorough, accurate, or thoughtful work for the client.

Work You Can Deliver

Participants perceived that client work prepared them to set high ethical standards resulting in work they could “deliver” to ensure client success. Samantha explained,

I think client work was one of the biggest things that helped me learn how to be ethical in a professional setting. You had to think about ethics and keep it in the forefront of our mind. We had to always make sure we put our best foot forward, consider the client’s reputation, and help them succeed.

Through client work, students became aware of how work of high ethical standards would benefit their client—whose entire livelihood often revolved around the issue for which they were advocating. Jessie shared, “When you are pitching and working on this campaign, it means so much to her. You want to be ethically sound and . . . make sure that you work hard so that the client appreciates it and can use it.” Likewise, Kent also perceived that client work taught him to exhibit high ethical standards to ensure client success. He stated,

We were hell bent on making them be the best they could be. You want your client to succeed, so we have a responsibility to make sure we are accountable to deliver on what our client needs to be better. And I think that’s the ethical side of it.

Coaching and Mentoring

Students also perceived that ethical client work involves mentoring and coaching from a professor, the client, or fellow classmates. Conducting client work in a class environment helped students work through ethical decisions with the guidance of individuals who had extensive ethics expertise. Alexandra, for example, said,

By working with a client now, we are dealing with it with your help, and you can let us know how to deal with it We are learning how to deal with ethics and we don’t take a full public relations ethics class here, so this class is a great ethics lesson for us to learn.

Similarly, Haddie explained how her classmates and professor helped her grow in the context of a “real” client work situation:

You are working with a client and you are giving them your very best, but you have your classmates and your professor who is there to help you learn. You can learn about ethics, or the right or wrong things to do before you get into the real world and you are on your own.

Ethicality Takes Practice

Finally, students perceived that client work prepared them to be ethical through practice. Students practiced ethical communication through the work experiences or mistakes they made in a class environment that promoted personal growth and learning. Regarding this unique learning experience, Haddie explained,

You can learn about ethics, or the right or wrong things to do before you get into the real world and you are on your own. The classroom helps you make mistakes and learn and grow. If we were working for a pretend client, it would have been hard to stimulate the realism that goes along with working for a real client.

Similarly, Ellie shared,

Working with a client was a great opportunity for us to understand and identify what we believe, so that we can go into the workplace and this class allows you to get a grasp on what your personal ethics are through this experience.

In addition, Nate emphasized the realistic, yet low-risk environment for ethical growth that client work provided: “I think that working with a client really enables a student to exert real-world skills and ethical practices in an environment with less or lower repercussions.”

Participants perceived that if they honed their ethical chops in a service learning class environment, they would remain ethical as future professionals. Students perceived client work as an opportunity to “make mistakes” or rectify unethical behaviors prior to entering the work force. For example, Jenny said, “I feel like for ethics, the way you learn is to make a mistake and learn from it . . . Then, you’ll be able to tackle that situation ethically in the real world.” In particular, students emphasized how client work helped them to practice standing up to a client who may ask them to do something unethical. Daniel explained, for example,

If we practice ethically for our client in class, then we should not have a problem with it in real life . . . Some clients may have you do something that you think is unethical. But learning about it in class will helpfully teach you to speak up. You learn to say hypothetically, “Here’s a situation that I don’t think is ethical by my standards.”

Limitations

Inconsistences involving interview length and setting, as well as a sample favoring perspectives of private university students, pose limitations to this study. Incorporation of phone interviews may have affected participants’ willingness to disclose information or the interviewer’s ability to interpret participants’ nonverbal behaviors. In addition, the relationship of some participants to the researcher as former students may have affected participants’ disclosure of information. The study is not generalizable to larger public relations educational contexts; however, the study attempted to maintain rigorous research design as the author conducted “member checks” with selected participants to confirm particular themes. By presenting the study’s findings to an international research conference and integrating scholars’ and reviewers’ feedback into the article, the researcher worked to strengthen the study’s “pragmatic” validity (Kvale, 1995).

This qualitative study regarding client work and ethics contributed to the dearth of research regarding how service learning experiences play a role in students’ understandings of ethics and prepare them to enter the public relations profession. Future research must be done to further explore the connections between service learning, client work, and the moral development of students. Such ongoing research is key to understanding how client work can enhance students’ learning of ethics while preparing them to meet the ever evolving ethical and professional landscape of the communications profession.