De-Westernizing African Journalism Curriculum Through Glocalization and Hybridization

Background: Western Influence in Global Journalism Education

Certainly, there is Western influence in the practice and study of journalism (Banda et al., 2007; Papoutsaki, 2007; Ullah, 2014). Arguably and historically, journalism is Western because the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France played a great role in charting the terrains of journalism with regard to early newspapers, magazines, radio, and television. Also, Western nations control global news production and dissemination through their ownership of the three major news agencies—Reuters (United Kingdom), Associated Press (United States), and Agence France Presse (France). Similarly, these nations championed journalism education which began as a trade school at the University of Missouri, Columbia, in 1879, and the Columbia University furthered the course into a graduate program in 1912 with a grant from the renowned Joseph Pulitzer. Obviously, journalism is a Western phenomenon and often, it is difficult to teach journalism without employing the Western model. But since other regions of the world began adopting journalistic practices and journalism education, scholars have strongly suggested that the field be de-Westernized and locally applied in conformity with normative paradigm. As such, this article recognizes the Western-traits in journalism education worldwide; at the same time, it concedes that striking attempts have been made and can still be made to de-Westernize and glocalize journalism curriculum.

Interventions Toward De-Westernizing Journalism Curriculum

Over the years, both stringent and subtle measures have been taken to de-Westernize the curriculum and make it more global. For instance, journalism professors aim to “internationalize” journalism curriculum by incorporating materials from other regions of the world to provide a broader view of journalism other than the Western perspective. An example is a study by Breit, Obijiofor, and Fitzgerald (2013) that focuses on internationalizing the curriculum to accommodate social imaginary which means putting into consideration the varied ways a diverse group could understand the concept which is embodied in “how people learn and the attitudes they bring to learning” (p. 2). In addition, colleges and universities engage in direct partnerships with institutions in developing countries in their quest for internationalizing the curriculum and broadening student experiences through experiential learning, study abroad programs, scholar exchange programs, virtual universities, cross-border degrees, and international satellite campuses.

Similarly, international organizations have made significant efforts in diversifying journalism education through sponsoring fellowships that foster collaboration of developing curriculum congruent to the local context. The Institute of International Education (IIE) supports international academic exchanges and this current project is an example. The IIE, a premier body in international education, manages more than 200 programs for and from more than 185 countries. In 2017 alone, 27,000 people participated in IIE managed programs, and many of those programs cater to program development as is the case with the current study.

Perhaps a more congruent effort by UNESCO with specific impact in Africa is the institution of Centres of Excellence in Journalism Education in various African countries. According to UNESCO, there are three main objectives of this initiative: (a) build Sustainable Centres of Excellence in Journalism Education, (b) create knowledge spillover to other universities in Africa, and (c) become credible facilitators for media development. The Centers are located in top-ranking journalism schools in nine African countries including Cameroon (École supérieure des sciences et techniques de l’information et de la communication), Kenya (The School of Journalism and Mass Communications [SOJMC], University of Nairobi), Morocco (Institut supérieur de l’information et de la communication [ISIC]), Mozambique (Mozambican School of Journalism), Namibia (School of Communication, Legal and Secretarial Studies, Namibia Polytechnic), Nigeria (Department of Mass Communication, University of Lagos), Senegal (Centre d’études des sciences et techniques de l’information [CESTI]), South Africa (University of Stellenbosch; Rhodes University; Walter Sisulu University School of Communication Studies; University of Technology Department of Journalism), and Uganda (Mass Communication Department, Makerere University). To achieve these objectives, UNESCO provided support to these centers in the areas of curricula, staff training, learning materials, media resource centers, management, media monitoring, and networking. These centers were launched in 2008; therefore, as this initiative approaches a 10 year mark, there is a need for an assessment to ascertain to what extent they have lived up to the Media Development Indicators—a framework for assessing media development as designed by UNESCO. Also specific to Africa, is the UNESCO (2007) Model Curricula and Sustainable Centers of Excellence in Journalism Education in response to the need for quality journalism education in Africa. The model curricula was launched with the World Journalism Education Council (WJEC). Although this model has been criticized as overtly Eurocentric and very difficult to apply in developing countries (Freedman, Rendahl, & Shafer, 2009; Freedman & Shafer, 2010), proponents of this model aver that it serves to provide a general information which is malleable enough as to be applied where, how, and when necessary; in essence, it is a template and not a rule (UNESCO Series on Journalism Education, 2013).

Glocalization and Hybridization as a Resolution

I propose glocalization as a solution to de-Westernizing journalism curriculum. Glocalization is a construct that, when loosely applied, literally translate to the cliché—“think globally, act locally.” In this case, it refers to the practice of developing a curriculum according to both local and global considerations. Hybridization, albeit, a biological or chemical term, generally speaks to the idea of combining varieties of objects (in this case, ideas and practices) to generate a new form of object that possesses some level of properties of all the original objects. Hybridization incorporates best practices from around the globe; this is necessary because, the major challenges that journalists face around the world are basically the same, only differing by specifics. Deuze (2006) concurs, the “changes and challenges facing journalism education around the world are largely similar, and thus would benefit from a ‘global’ approach” (p. 19). Therefore, coalescing these two concepts, I propose a resolution that subsumes best practices and congruent concepts from Western models and local considerations. To achieve a glocalized curriculum, focusing on the local needs and context are important, internationalization of the curriculum is equally needed. Breit et al. (2013) explain,

Internationalisation of the curriculum requires a critical understanding of the local in the context of the global and vice versa . . . To prepare students successfully for careers in journalism, they need to understand how journalism works at both local and global levels. Furthermore, they need to understand how local and global journalism cultures interact to shape and/or reinvent professional practices. (pp. 5-6)

The concept of glocalization has been employed in various aspects of higher education. It serves as a preferred method for both inter-continental or inter-cultural curriculum development and foreign language pedagogy (Ahmadian & Rad, 2014; Patel, 2017). Patel and Lynch (2013) recommend it as a way to better prepare students for the demands of an ever-changing global society especially in cases where institutions of higher learning engage in internationalization. They defined a glocalized curricula as a “consideration and pedagogical framing of local and global community connectedness in relation to social responsibility, justice and sustainability” (p. 223). Similarly, Patel (2017) criticizes internationalization of higher education as in most cases, a parodist to Western hegemonic perspective which simply replicates the development communication model. He proposes embedding within the curriculum a Glocalization Engagement Framework (GEF) because GEF is “equitable, inclusive, and diversity-focused” (p. 64). In another instance, Robertson (1995) endorses glocalization because it fosters locality while borrowing from global best practices. In all these, collaboration is key; whereas many scholars aver that mutual collaboration in international education venture is attainable, others are very skeptical about its achievement citing cultural diversity, differentiated values, doctrines, ideologies, and systems as impediment to its success (Reed, 2005). I have provided below some tips on successful collaboration.

Tips on Collaboration

Although not all joint efforts are considered collaboration, valid collaboration requires trust, mutual understanding, and respect. Montiel-Overall (2005) defines collaboration in the areas of instruction, teaching, and learning as a “trusting, working relationship between two or more equal participants involved in shared thinking, shared planning and shared creation of integrated instruction” (p. 5). Essentially, social constructivist approach and PAM are needed for collaboration and certain guidelines are necessary for a cohesive and successful collaboration. They include recognition of common goals (Gray, 1989), sustainability and coordinated steps in delegating responsibilities and decision making (Ravid & Handler, 2001), readiness to accept different approaches and change (Huse & Cummings, 1985). We also considered shared thinking, shared problem-solving, and shared creation of integrated instruction; trusting working relationship; and focusing on content areas—how it relates to the specific local need or context (Montiel-Overall, 2005). Although theoretically, international collaboration may seem simple, there have been occasions whereby global North–South collaboration is lopsided or failed to achieve the desired goal. Also, there have been situations where the goal was achieved but without the input or participation of all involved. The expectations from all parties involved in collaboration may be as distinct as their backgrounds in the realms of what should be included in the assessment of needs, pedagogical styles, content, and outcome. However, alliance with equal contribution and participation grounded in equity and mutual understanding, rather than dominance, would yield a more effective outcome. The caveat then becomes a challenge of each participant discarding their pre-conceived notions of how things are done in their home institutions and countries and embracing the environment where the designed program will be implemented. This, however, does not undermine self-reflexivity. Collaborators’ reflexivity cannot be entirely erased especially as it often interweaves with experiences. However, some challenges may arise from the perception that scholars in developing nations may feel inferior to their counterparts coming from institutions in developed countries either due to the feeling of dependency or lack of similar qualification or experience (Altbach, 2002). In such cases, conflict resolution skills are needed as intervention strategy and referencing the goals of the project might bring all parties back to focus.

The success of our collaboration in Uganda can be attributed to several factors including our agreement to operate in a space that was neither Western nor entirely local. We worked within the framework of Third Culture. Third culture is a brand new space independent of both the local culture and the borrowed culture but embodying the constructs of both. This new space provides a respectful, engaging, and inspiring space where “diverse cultural communities meet and make connections through dialogue, negotiation, and meaningful engagement” (Patel & Lynch, 2013). Third Cultural space is neither purely Western nor purely Ugandan but a combination of best practices from both worlds. As such, the curriculum that emerged from this collaboration is not ethnocentric but adopts a global perspective for training journalists who will serve in both local and global environments.

Process/Method

Through letters, telephone calls, face-to-face meetings, focus group discussions, and surveys, several stakeholders were contacted to provide input on the necessity of the program and their expectations. The following were sources that informed the program design:

Outcomes

The following consists of data gathered from the assessment of needs and how they informed our curriculum development:

Examples of Glocalization and Hybridization of Curriculum

The complete structure of the curriculum is presented in Table A1 in the appendix. Although some course titles are unequivocally similar to what is offered at many institutions of higher learning in Western countries such as Media Law, Media Theories, History of Media, they were developed to match the local context. Specifically, we ensured that core courses incorporated the history of media in Africa and Uganda in particular; tracing the history of Africa as it relates to the world communication arena including colonialism in Africa, media’s role in producing coherent and modern nations, theories of nationalism, role of media in mediating national identity in Africa, imperialism, theory of representation, and Africa. Also included in the topics are the short-wave radio and African colonialism and community media in postcolonial world. The course also covers new media’s role in linking up relatives within Africa and the Africans in diaspora and new media’s impact on social relations and the African culture. Equally is the focus on the African media and journalism practices, as well as their colonial character and the relationship with current government especially as more African countries aim to leapfrog from the developmental press system to social responsibility focus. Another example is the Introduction to Journalism and Mass Communication (BJMC 1105) course—while this course covers the history of mass communication and journalism incorporating the Western contributions, it also provides Ugandan-based contributions such as the Uganda newspapers, radio, music industries, and the ethical principles as they relate to Uganda.

Another example of course adaptation to local need is demonstrated in the Media Law (BJMC 1204) course. The topics covered include an overview of Uganda constitution with particular reference to the section that deals with laws and statutes that govern the media, other legal documents on media and communication, definitions and terminologies in ethics and law, truth-telling, right to privacy, confidentiality of source, conflict of interest, social justice, defamation, freedom of expression, copyright laws, contempt of court, treason, sedition, transparency, and ethics for communication practitioners. In addition, students are required to review specific cases, incidents, historical accounts, court rulings, special documents, and Acts as pertains to media law in Uganda. We also highlighted cultural issues inherent to Uganda by including the Human Rights and Development (BJMC 2102) course as one of the mandatory core courses. Ordinarily, a Western-based journalism curriculum may not require it as a full course because, human rights issues, at least in general, is not a fundamental issue. But considering the dynamic of the Ugandan environment and the issues of war, unrest, and political turmoil, we envisaged that journalists trained in, and for Uganda ought to be aware of the human rights issues as a development concern that could infringe on other vital rights. The course contents include the universal declaration of human rights and incorporates human rights issues in Africa including governance and refugees with case studies of the Darfur crisis, Somalia, South Sudan, and so on. The course also covered specific Ugandan human rights issues in pre-colonial, colonial, and postcolonial periods.

Similarly, the International Communication (BJMC 2202) course incorporates the global international topics but we highlighted the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO)—which no longer dominates the international discourse in Western curriculum. We equally incorporated notable African scholars and their perspectives and contributions to international communication; for example, Akinfeleye, Amobi, Okoye, Sunday, Mojaye, Oyewo, M’Bayo, Sobowale, Onwumechili, Nwosu, and others. Another course that renders the curricula Ugandan or African is the Development Communication (BJMC 2203), which provides an overview of the theory and practice inherent in development communication which has come to define most developing nations of the world, tracing the history of communication as it relates to the independence and nation-building of many countries with Uganda in particular. Specific topics covered in this course include the nature and component of development process, background and role of international development programs and agencies, the role of mass media in nation-building, agriculture, health, education, population planning, sanitation, environment protection, and socio-economic development.

In developing the investigative journalism course, we considered the cultural aspect of Uganda as it relates to assertiveness as counter-cultural especially between women and men or between elders, political figures, and ordinary citizens who may serve as journalists. We emphasized techniques that will maintain the expected level of respect without deviating from the required decorum and investigative skills. We equally covered skills needed for rural news reportage, accidents, crime, war, and ethnic conflicts.

In the areas of advertising and public relations, we acknowledged the social, economic, infrastructural, political, and cultural challenges which would impede transferring verbatim, Western advertising and public relations curriculum to Uganda. Public relations and advertising, and to some extent, journalism, as currently taught in Western countries, centers on new media technologies and online platforms. This was localized to incorporate traditional media outlets which are still ubiquitous in Uganda especially radio and television. We recommended incorporating social media platforms like WhatsApp instead of the mainstream Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, or Snapchat as in Western curriculum. Considering the cultural influences of local chiefs and elders, they were included as public relations influencers for grassroots mobilization.

Finally, we recommended reviewing the contributions of some erudite scholars and media entrepreneurs such as Zie Gariyo (author of The Press and Democratic Struggles in Uganda, 1900-1962; The Media, Constitutionalism, and Democracy in Uganda and many other insightful books about Ugandan government and media), Freddie Ssekitto (a reputable Ugandan journalist and author), late Dele Giwa (the Nigerian journalist and one of the founders of Newswatch magazine, founded almost 35 years ago and still boasts of selling more than 100,000 copies per week), Dele Olojede (Africa’s first winner of the prestigious Pulitzer Prize in journalism), Francis Nyamnjoh (who has written extensively about media, democratization, and sustainable development in Cameroon), Ralph Akinfeleye (the world-renowned media consultant with multi-national organizations, scholar, and director of one of the UNESCO’s Centres of Excellence at the University of Lagos, Nigeria), and many others. Equally, we highlighted the contributions of African Motion Picture industries including the Nollywood (Nigeria) and Ghallywood (Ghana)—the third and fourth largest movie-producing industries in the world after Hollywood (United States) and Bollywood (India). In the same vein, students will explore other contributions by Africans in global media entertainment; for instance, African actors and actresses including the Academy Award–winner Lupita Nyong’o, Chiwetel Ejiofor, and a host of others.