Challenging Environmental Inequality? Role Perceptions and Practices of Environmental Journalists in Independent News Organizations

Participants

We recruited 10 journalists using purposive, convenience, and snowball sampling strategies. First, we mapped independent news organizations focused on environmental issues using the national map of independent journalism (Agência Pública, 2019). Second, we invited journalists who have covered stories for the mapped organizations by sending emails or messages on LinkedIn. All journalists were informed about the purpose of the research in advance and signed a research agreement. During the interviews, we also asked whether they could recommend other independent news organizations or journalists to expand the sample. Four of the 10 journalists were female. Eight of the journalists were formally contracted by independent news organizations, whereas two worked as freelancers for different independent environmental news organizations. Figure 1 illustrates the work status of the interviewed journalists and their respective federal states. Note that the points shown do not reflect their exact locations, only the Brazilian federal state.

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Figure 1.

Work status of interviewed journalists.

Interview Guide

The interview guide included questions on motives to cover the environment, the perception of legacy news media coverage on environmental issues, ideal models of journalism, journalistic practices, journalistic roles, ethical values, and journalistic practice to include sources.

Procedure

Interviews were conducted in the first semester of 2024 using Microsoft Teams (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA). Interviews had an average duration of 39 min. We later transcribed them and translated them into English. Both steps were carried out by a Portuguese-speaking member of the research team. We used MAXQDA (VERBI Software, 2026) to code the interview transcripts.

We developed a coding scheme with 8 main categories and 45 subcategories to analyze how journalists frame their reporting and perceive their professional roles (see Online Supplemental Appendix for full definitions). These categories included: (a) Interventionism, assessing the level of journalistic involvement (Hanitzsch, 2007); (b) Journalistic Role Conceptions, such as watchdog or neutral observer based on the typology used by Tandoc et al. (2013) which is suited for comparing role conceptions and performances; (c) Audience Orientation, examining whether journalists prioritize public service or market demands (Hanitzsch, 2007; Kovach & Rosenstiel, 2001); (d) Epistemological Approaches, distinguishing between objectivist and constructivist perspectives; (e) Ethical Criteria for Source Selection, analyzing justifications for including or excluding sources (Herrscher, 2002; Plaisance & Skewes, 2003); (f) Perceived Media Bias, particularly toward political or economic interests (Chinn et al., 2020; Van Dijk, 2016); (g) Inclusion of Marginalized Voices; and (h) Types of Sources Quoted. We opted for an open coding scheme, which allowed the coders to add further categories if needed. Our analytical approach was primarily deductive, as the main categories were informed by existing theoretical frameworks on media bias and journalistic roles and performance. At the same time, we incorporated inductive elements through open coding, which allowed for the refinement of categories and the identification of empirical nuances emerging from the data.

The Coverage of Environmental Issues in Legacy News Media

Examining environmental journalists’ perceptions of legacy news coverage (RQ1), we identify five main types of perceived biases: (a) issues bias; (b) framing bias (c) elite bias; (d) economic bias; and (f) false balance bias. Regarding issue bias, journalists criticized the insufficient attention given to environmental issues. According to them, respective topics receive inadequate coverage, with reports often limited to disasters. There is a lack of follow-up stories that illustrate the ongoing nature of environmental challenges or the consequences. Additionally, there is a shortage of reports highlighting potential risks faced by populations in vulnerable areas. Legacy news media also tend to overlook issues occurring in noncentral regions. In Brazil, for instance, the Southeast region, which holds the most economic power, receives most of the media attention. In contrast, Northern states, including those home to the Amazon, are frequently neglected in news coverage:

In fact, a series of situations outside the Southeast have gone unnoticed by the population as a whole. The thing is that you report that the Amazon River has dried up, for example, in the Itajaí region, there is not a continuity. People soon forget. And, for example, the Itajaí region, that region was destroyed, people all went back there waiting for the next catastrophe, you know? So, in my view, there’s a lack of continuity and more quality for this journalism to get closer to that sustainable level. I don’t see a problem with quality, but more with size. We need more and better press reaching more people on a continuous basis. (Interviewee 2)

The interviewees perceived environmental and sustainability issues as niche topics in journalism, highlighting an issue bias in news reporting. While independent news organizations specializing in these areas provide continuous coverage, legacy news media fail to integrate such topics into their daily reporting. Framing bias was also highlighted by some of the journalists interviewed. One journalist noted the absence of a “sustainable lens” in traditional journalism, criticizing the tendency of journalists to overlook the long-term impact of major political decisions. They argued that journalists should adopt a more critical perspective and actively question politicians, business organizations, and institutions about the long-term consequences of their actions. According to them, a sustainability perspective should be embedded in journalistic framing rather than treated as a separate or secondary concern. For example, when reporting on tax reductions for cars, journalists from legacy news media often focus on the economic consequences, such as the increase of employment rates. However, they should ask political actors about the long-term impacts of such decisions, including increased carbon emissions, higher rates of respiratory diseases, and worsening traffic congestion. One of the key problems associated with the framing bias is the lack of in-depth and nuanced coverage, which often leads to oversimplifications and the illusion of easy solutions. A journalist pointed out that reporters should trust the audience’s ability to engage with the complexity and uncertainty of the issues being reported:

Reality is super complex. So, while we know how much we keep doing and giving in, you know? Like, putting things as if they were simple, as if the solutions were simple, as if there were technological solutions to things, as if scientific hype was going to solve the problems. We’re doing a disservice, so I think the big challenge is for us to really deepen our coverage, understand the complexities, the uncertainties and put that into our coverage. (Interviewee 8)

Elite bias is closely related to framing bias and was described by journalists as favoring the perspectives of elite voices. It is evident in how news is framed, often centering on political debates rather than on vulnerable populations. Elite bias is reflected in both framing and source selection. Even when environmental and climate issues are the focus of coverage, legacy news media tend to prioritize political actors over indigenous populations, communities affected by climate change, scientists, or NGOs. One journalist reflected on their own practice, comparing their early work to their current approach. They noted that including indigenous populations in their reporting was a recent development.

Elite bias is also closely related to economic bias. Several journalists noted that news stories tend to focus on the economic consequences of political decisions rather than their long-term sustainability impact. This framing is often reinforced by the inclusion of powerful business groups, whose voices are prioritized even in coverage of environmental and climate issues:

I think that, above all, we’re experiencing this whole context of having the COP here in Belém. So this has somehow brought the sustainability debate to the mass media. However, it is a sustainability agenda that dialogues with those who destroy nature. They will listen, for example, to the X Institute, for example, the Y Institute, which are giant companies that operate here in our region, but which destroy the environment instead of promoting the necessary social and climate justice. (Interviewee 7)

Another bias mentioned was the well-known false balance bias. Journalists noted that news stories often attempt to balance perspectives by giving disproportionate space to voices promoting scientifically invalidated claims. This bias is also prevalent in news framing, particularly in word choice. For example, indigenous populations are often murdered by land invaders attempting to seize their territory. However, as one journalist noted, such events are frequently framed as “deaths due to confrontation” rather than being accurately described as murder.

Journalistic Roles

Addressing how journalists reflect on their own practices (RQ2), and more specifically their perceived journalistic roles (RQ3a), most journalists identified themselves as (a) translators, (b) disseminators, (c) advocates, and (d) mobilizers. Some journalists saw their role as “translating” the complexity of the issues they cover. This role was connected with significant challenges. One was balancing the complexity of scientific information with the need for clarity. Journalists identified the risk of oversimplifying or being too complex for the audience. A key challenge in achieving this balance was the relationship between journalists and scientists. Journalists noted that researchers were often unhappy with how their work was portrayed in the media, highlighting tensions between accuracy and accessibility in reporting:

It’s still a complicated relationship, isn’t it? I think that throughout history, we’ve had a conflict between researchers and journalists, because sometimes the researchers want you to publish the article verbatim with the literal words. But it’s not always going to be accessible to the general public. So sometimes there are also researchers who are resistant to giving interviews. (Interviewee 10)

Another challenge in translating information was encountering accessible formats for local and vulnerable populations, who often have low literacy rates or limited education. One journalist created an investigative series in podcast format, enabling the local population to access information through audio rather than text.

The second identified role was the “disseminator.” Journalists perceived themselves as disseminating information needed for raising awareness for important environmental, and scientific issues. Part of this role was also to tell the stories of populations that are silenced and invisible in legacy news media. Our journalists tried to actively listen and tell the stories of these people. “I tell the stories of these populations. I tell them, as we say in our project. We want to tell the story of these people who, in fact, are invisible here, who are silenced, right?” (Interviewee 5).

The advocate role was related to the level of journalists’ involvement with the issues they cover. Some journalists saw their news stories as a tool for exerting pressure on institutions, using their reporting to drive change. Some journalists perceived themselves as having a cause, such as defending democracy, preserving nature, or strengthening scientific information. For some, advocating a standpoint did—in their view—not compromise journalistic integrity because they were standing for democratic values and human rights which are also journalist values. However, others explicitly identified as activists:

I present myself as an activist for socio-environmental causes, an activist for LGBT causes and an activist for climate justice. So I believe that, personally speaking, that’s who I am and what I stand for as a person in society. (Interviewee 7)

In some cases, journalists also became a point of reference for indigenous communities, where access to information is often limited. They acted as a trusted source, guiding individuals on how to address authorities. Despite this dual role—both as reporters and as sources of guidance—journalists still perceived this role as an integral part of their profession:

It is the role of a journalist, whether they like it or not, according to the Code of Ethics, to report violations and also to defend vulnerable populations and minorities. So I don’t think it’s an issue that we’re doing outside of our profession. (Interviewee 10)

The last role identified was the mobilizer role. Some aimed to motivate people to engage in civic activities or make more informed decisions through the stories they cover. One of them aimed to reach the especially indigenous communities and riverside population. Their goal was to make vulnerable populations aware of how environmental exploitation directly affects their lives:

But we also want to communicate with people in the territories. And I think that a great example of this is the mobilization campaigns that we run, showing people in the territories how major projects can impact that environment. A very clear example of this is the impact of mining in our region, where mining has had a huge boom, and we try, through campaigns and tools, to talk to the territory to show the impact of mining in other places, saying look, if mining sees that it can happen here too. (Interviewee 6)

Journalists demonstrated an understanding that their framing and choice of issues can influence a wide range of attitudes, including voting behavior, political participation, and civic engagement. They pointed out that by adopting a sustainability lens and highlighting the impact of economic activities, public policies, and political decisions on the environment—and ultimately on people’s daily lives—they could impact public perception and individual attitudes. In part, this understanding of journalists as mobilizers was also connected with the political changes, such as the rise of negationist voices and disinformation. One of the journalists pointed out that the journalism roles must be updated, and that the neutral understanding of journalism was not appropriate anymore:

We’re tired of being beaten up. I’m tired, you know, of living like this, damn it, I’m a science journalist, an environmental journalist. Then you see disinformation like this and you say: no. It’s no use, you know? We’re wiping ice, so maybe we need to get out of this thing of thinking: “But I’m a journalist, I just write. Ah, no, but I’m a journalist, like I’m not an educator, so I’m a journalist. An educator is a teacher.” We need to get off that pedestal too. (Interviewee 7)

The mobilizer role was connected to the understanding that journalists’ information has the potential to educate and raise awareness for complex topics. Some vulnerable populations, for example, have no concrete understanding of what climate change means. Interviewee 6 pointed out that they understand that the environment is changing, that they are not catching enough fish and that açaí (dark purple berry that comes from the açaí palm tree) is getting drier. “So people understood the effects on the territory, but they didn’t know what was going on” (Interviewee 6). A solution for informing the local population about the events was launching an informative printed booklet for the communities that do not have access to the internet:

We adapted it by territory based on the narrative of each territory. So we have a specific booklet for indigenous peoples, one for quilombolas, one for extractivists and one for people from the floodplain area, in which we were able to adapt the language to dialogue with that specific territory. (Interviewee 6)

Ethical Values

When asked about ethics in environmental reporting (RQ3b), journalists mentioned five main ethical values: (a) avoid harm; (b) truth; (c) completeness; (d) civic mindedness; and (e) diversity. Journalists tried to avoid harm, especially to the sources they include and the communities they cover. In Brazilian protected areas, such as the Amazon, traditional communities face pressure from various actors interested in exploring and gaining access to the region. In this context, the sources of traditional communities are often at risk. Journalists were aware of such risks and tried to protect them as much as possible:

Yeah, I don’t know, when it comes to journalism in the Amazon, there’s a lot of talk about violence as well. We’re in a border region with Bolivia and Peru, where criminal organizations operate very strongly. Today our [federal] state is unfortunately controlled by criminal factions. So these are issues that we sometimes try to be very careful and delicate in dealing with, to preserve our safety and also to secure our communities where they are infiltrated, because this has an impact on both sides. (Interviewee 4)

To protect them, journalists asked the community in advance if they are willing to have their names and pictures published. Journalists were first and foremost concerned with the safety of the people, and no fact was more important than preserving the lives of people and their families. Journalists were also aware of the power dynamics and understood that they were in a powerful position because they were the ones telling the stories of the communities. In this regard, they tried to use this awareness to do the best possible reporting:

We’re the ones with the camera; we’re the ones talking to the recorder. So, we have a power over the other person’s story and I think it’s very important in these moments. So, to be careful about how you treat the story and how you relate to it. (Interviewee 3)

Concerning anonymous sources, journalists described the importance of being careful not to publish information that could identify the person or endanger the community. An example given by interviewee 6 was an indigenous community that is almost extinct and occupies a large protected area. When reporting on them, they avoid even mentioning how many indigenous people there are, so as not to show the vulnerability of the population to possible criminals:

They get raided a lot and they’re only about X people. So I avoid it. When I tell the story, I avoid putting the name, the number of indigenous people, because they are susceptible to even more invasions, because they will see (. . .) how fragile they are.

Protecting sources is also important for preserving the relationship of trust between journalists and the sources:

So these people are people who are extremely threatened with death, of having this data, of actually being set on fire. So how do you deal with it? Because these people, are they trusting you? So, the issue of anonymity is what keeps journalists and indigenous people together. (Interviewee 10)

To protect sources, Interviewee 10 mentioned that they always contact sources sometime after publication to check on their safety and if they need assistance. Such assistance also includes legal support.

Another prevalent ethical value was the pursuit of truth. Journalists mentioned that it is important to check sources and information and to verify the extent to which the information is valid. “And then you have to do a thorough investigation to find out who this person is, if the complaint they are going to make is really true and if you can trust them” (Interviewee 6). One problem was the lack of resources to go to the field. Journalists often covered stories in regions that are difficult, costly and dangerous to reach. Technology helped cover stories that otherwise wouldn’t be covered.

Also related to the pursuit of truth was the need to present comprehensive information. In this regard, another ethical value mentioned was the aim for completeness. Because they were not working for mainstream news media, the interviewees were able to do deep investigative reporting. “So, the stories that a big newspaper would do overnight, we have to spend a week insisting, looking for other sources” (Interviewee 2). As they sometimes were unable to go on the ground, other resources were also helpful to complete the information, such as satellite images. Yet, depending on the type of reporting, going to the field was crucial. Journalists and news organizations tried to prioritize the types of issues that needed in person reporting and the types of issues that could be addressed remotely:

We only go to the field when it’s very necessary to make an image. When something really serious happens, or it’s something like that, a very serious violation and we can go, but most of the time we have to do it from a distance (Interviewee 10).

In order to reach this completeness of information, another crucial practice was diversifying the amount of sources:

Everyone who tells the same story is going to tell it in different ways, from different points of view, and that’s precisely why I say that I find it very difficult to deal with this impartial journalism thing. Sometimes it’s even the place you’re looking at a scene from. You know, what I’m looking for, and this has been a learning experience, trying to listen more and more to people who are, who have always been left out, who have always been snubbed. (Interviewee 9)

The diversification of sources and the inclusion of silent voices is also related to the ethical value of civic mindedness. One journalist pointed out that they also had a commitment to the communities they were covering to make an ideal representation of the phenomenon. “So, taking care that my work really represents what I’ve seen and what I’ve experienced and what has been shared with me and that other communities have opened up” (Interviewee 3). This ethical value shows the civic responsibility of journalists to be attentive and respectful of the stories being told.

The inclusion of diverse sources is also linked to the ethical value of seeking diversity. Journalists claimed to actively include vulnerable populations, such as indigenous communities, in their reporting. “We listen to community leaders, union and association presidents, indigenous and religious leaders who are part of the land. So, our primary source, the number one source, is always the communities.” (Interviewee 4). They privileged the inclusion of communities, such as leaders who actively protest to defend their interests. Including leaders in reporting is also linked to the first ethical value of avoiding harm, since such leaders are already exposed. Journalists try to avoid including other community sources to avoid exposing them:

One way we do it is to look for leaders. In other words, the guy who is already there, already known, already exposed if that’s the case, and not the people who are isolated in riverside areas and have no one speaking for them, in other words, the direct source. (Interviewee 2)

Another important source are scientists. “We have the network of contacts with researchers, scientists, masters and doctors, universities” (Interviewee 5). In general, journalists tried to give more voice to communities and scientists, while politicians were included in light of their responsibility to solve the issues. Privileging underrepresented sources shows journalists’ concern to diversify and include sources that are often not included in traditional news media.

Sources Included

Regarding RQ4, our results showed that, in the news articles examined, indigenous people and researchers were the most common sources of information (see Figure 2). Public institutions were the third most common source, followed by NGOs, legal experts, and political actors. Other communities were not included as frequently as indigenous populations. However, the limited presence of other communities as sources of information is likely related to the types of issues covered. The news articles were mostly focused on environmental issues, such as indigenous protected lands and environmental crimes targeting Indigenous territories.

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Figure 2.

Circle packing of included sources.

Turning to the framing dimension of RQ4, Figure 3 illustrates the relationship between the sources of information and the frames used. We expected that political actors would be included in news articles in terms of their responsibility for solving problems. However, our data show that there is little overlap between them and the institutional responsibility frame. Instead, we find that political actors continue to appear in news articles by focusing primarily on polarization and negativity, reflecting the news biases that journalists highlighted in their interviews. However, the overlap is moderate. Overall, political actors were not included as much as other sources of information (Figure 2). In this respect, their weight in the frames used is lower than that of other sources of information.

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Figure 3.

Overlaps between sources and frames.

Our data showed that the inclusion of researchers as sources of information is very strongly connected to the scientific view. The overlap of researchers is also very strong with the marginalized frame, as they often highlight the risks faced by indigenous populations because of climate change and environmental disasters. Researchers were strongly connected with the sustainable, polarization, and negative frames. Our results showed that overall, researchers were connected with a diverse set of frames.

Lastly, the inclusion of indigenous populations showed a very strong overlap with the marginalized and sustainable frame. News stories were likely to focus on the perspectives of the population, such as the problems they face and their role in the preservation of Brazilian territories. However, since many of these populations are targeted by criminal groups and business organizations trying to gain control over their territories, including indigenous people as sources of information also meant that the frames were very negative. Of course, the negativity of such frames is related to their constant struggle for territories and rights, which highlight the vulnerability of such populations.