College Student Perceptions of the Root Causes of Sexual Violence Before and After a Curricular Intervention

Social and Cultural Causes

At both time-points, 95% of students (n = 60) referenced different social or cultural causes. These included an emphasis on gender relations and the gender binary; a focus on masculinity as a social construct; identification of rape culture as a pervasive, mundane social force; and a focus on campus hook-up culture.

Gender Relations. Gender relations was the most commonly cited cause of sexual violence in entry 1 (84%, n = 53) and a frequently cited, albeit less discussed, cause in entry 2 (56%, n = 35). This included several sub-causes, such as the gender binary and power dynamics, and gendered, (hetero)sexual scripts. Students recognized the gender binary as a form of social categorization, which then created hierarchical relationships between men and women. One student wrote: “the gender binary … perpetuates a social hierarchy that inordinately values men over women and overlooks those who identify with neither extreme” (ID 3, entry 1). Another student described the “unwritten rules” taught through this gendered system: “These … not only contribute to male domination of societal power and the objectification of the female body, but also create a web of social cues that tell both men and women that sexual assault is okay, expected, and normal” (ID 23, entry 1). Students also referenced gendered sexual scripts—the various social norms and practices that frame and guide sexual feelings and behaviors (Simon & Gagnon, 1984). Students described how sexual scripts anchored sexuality and sexual expression to the gender binary and gave more sexual power to men: “Everywhere one looks … women are objectified and hyper sexualized, normalizing the treatment of women as sexual objects whose sole purpose is to satisfy and pleasure men” (ID 5, entry 1).

In their second entry, students often built upon these concepts by connecting them to other topics covered in class. One student observed:

Those very early weeks of class opened my eyes … men and women starting at birth were separated into two categories and told how they should act based upon their gender. This made me reflect on my life and how I was told to act and speak about sex, compared to my guy friends who were told that it was ok to pursue women and openly talk about sex. (ID 65, entry 2)

Another student connected gender relations to social value and power: “Before we learn how to walk, we are taught to categorize ourselves, and others… Unfortunately, we are also taught that society values one gender over the other” (ID 35, entry 2).

Masculinity. Students often singled out masculinity as a unique contributor to sexual violence and described similar concepts at both time points, although this was more frequent in entry 1 (59%, n = 37) versus 2 (49%, n = 31). Students described “toxic” and “hyper” masculinity as harmful cultural constructions that degraded women and femininity, and created conditions for sexual violence:

Hyper-masculinity … promotes stereotypical masculine characteristics … strength, power, and aggression … To prove their masculinity, men feel the need to demonstrate their power … When women will not give them what they want (… sex), they must demonstrate their power and take it. (ID 86, entry 1)

Students also pointed out the cultural connection between masculinity and sex: “Along with the age-old idea that men should be tough and authoritative is the popular misconception that ‘real men’ always want sex (ID 77, entry 1).” And another student: “Men are taught that their sexuality cannot be controlled … their sexual satisfaction is more important than a woman's body and her choice” (ID 71, entry 1).”

Rape Culture. Rape culture refers to the “set of values and beliefs that provide an environment conducive to rape” (Boswell & Spade, 1996, p. 133). This concept was less commonly discussed in entry 1 (37%, n = 23) but was the most frequently cited cause in entry 2, nearly doubling over time (64%, n = 40). Students explicitly discussed rape culture as perpetuating sexual violence, especially via pornography, media, and a lack of support for victims. One student also highlighted how systems often protect perpetrators:

Victims can be punished for speaking out … aggressors often face little to no consequences … victims can face skepticism, harassment …threats to their lives …systems are set in place specifically to protect men accused of sexual misconduct … the knowledge that they are likely to avoid any consequence is a significant factor leading to sexual violence. (ID 92, entry 1)

Although some students named rape culture as an important cause in entry 1, by entry 2 students often connected rape culture with other course ideas, particularly the role of media. One student succinctly described rape culture as: “An environment in which rape and sexual assault are not only present, but also trivialized, tolerated, and even glamorized” (ID 76, entry 2). Students also noted how the course gave them conceptual tools to “see” rape culture in media and in their everyday lives:

Mass media glamorizes sexual assault; it perpetuates ideas that male domination of women is sexy … movies, TV shows, and music portray men pressuring women to date/kiss/have sex with them even when the women continually say no. (ID 31, entry 2)

Another student explicitly named rape culture and its connection to the media:

Rape culture is so prevalent and normalized [in]… the glamorization … of media productions that highlight sexual violence … the movie Twilight, the song Blurred Lines … “cat calling” women on the street… everyday language … “I just got hit-on by that guy,” or “I’ll make that test my bitch.” (ID 34, entry 2)

A few students focused on how victims’ experiences were minimized, and aggressors were not held accountable, reinforcing and perpetuating rape culture and sexual violence: “Our society not only disbelieves victims but blames victims; we even allow perpetrators … to hold their celebrity and leadership positions” (ID 31, entry 2).

Hookup Culture. Although less commonly discussed than other social and cultural causes, several students referenced campus hook-up culture and related components (dating apps, drinking and drug use, partying) as fostering sexual violence. References increased from the first (16%, n = 10) to the second entry (24%, n = 15), but were still only mentioned by less than one-quarter of students. Students focused on party culture and substance use as aspects of hookup culture that fostered sexual violence in their first entries: “[A] root cause …[is] party culture that seems to be getting worse … Alcohol and drugs can affect a person's ability to say no or fight someone off them, making it easier for someone to sexually assault another person” (ID 78, entry 1). This student echoed this connection: “Alcohol also plays a key role … the perpetrator uses it to more easily coax the survivor” (ID 86, entry 1).

In their second entry students focused more on societal pressures related to sexuality and masculinity in hook-up culture. For example, one student explicitly connected the desire and expectation for casual sex to sexual violence: “Participants in hook up culture often feel pressured to succeed (in hooking up) … if a man is unsuccessful … he might be capable of committing sexual violence just to … earn that status of having hooked up” (ID 86, entry 2). Another student similarly noted: “The social expectation of readily available sex is definitely a stimulus for sexual harassment, coercion, and assault” (ID 92, entry 2). A different student commented: “Hook up culture … blurs the lines of consent and make[s] it almost impossible to tell yes from no” (ID 87, entry 2).

A few students also addressed the gender inequality of hook-up culture: “[In] hookup culture our society embraces casual sex as the norm, and men seem to have the power and their desires are often centered over women's …women often feel pressured to say yes to men” (ID 32, entry 2). Some students felt that online dating apps—a technology linked to hook-up culture—facilitated sexual violence:

“Hookups” and “no strings attached sexual encounters” have become … more of a norm … apps that are based specifically off a person's physical attractiveness … This leads people to see other people as strictly objects of pleasure, objects that do not require consent. (ID 28, entry 2)

Intersectionality Causes

Students particularly commented on how the course broadened their understanding of sexual violence from a more simplistic “women's issue” to one that was structured by gender, sexuality, and race, among other factors. Students emphasized discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex persons (LGBTI) and racial discrimination as important factors in sexual violence. Twenty-one percentage (n = 13) in the first entry and 38% (n = 24) in the second entry referenced causes in the “intersectionality” category.

LGBTI Discrimination. Several students described how the course heightened their awareness of the threat of sexual violence for LGBTI individuals. Perhaps in part because this topic was discussed in the first week of classes, LGBTI discrimination was mentioned as an important cause by a similar number of students in their first (19%, n = 12) and second (22%, n = 14) entries. Student thinking evolved on this topic, with some students in their first entries presenting misinformation, such as this student: “Those who identify as gay, lesbian, transgender, etc. also feel misrepresented in society, due to the fact that their gender stereotypes aren’t always met. For instance, a gay man is stereotypically more feminine than the ‘average male,’ and therefore isn’t always viewed as a true man. Therefore, when it comes to sex and relationships, those who feel underappreciated in society may feel the need to ‘prove themselves’ to others and themselves that their gender expectations can, in fact, be met, and they do so by overcompensating” (ID 34, entry 1).

Although some students acknowledge the role of LGBTI discrimination as a cause in entry 1, their thinking became more complex throughout the course. As one student discussed: “In my previous journal, it was evident that I viewed sexual violence as a ‘woman's issue’… [which] erases the experiences of LGBT survivors” (ID 14, entry 2). Although this student may be conflating gender identity with sexual identity, it shows their increasing awareness that sexual violence impacts those who don’t identify as women, and those who are not in heterosexual relationships. Another student similarly noted: “I have learned that the LGBTQ community experiences sexual violence at a much higher rate than heterosexuals” (ID 25, entry 2).

Several students described heteronormativity as a main cause of sexual violence. One student noted:

[Start of semester] I had a very baseline understanding … things I had learned in my high school … I think it is important to understand sexual violence is tied to other oppressive constructs that we have learned about in this course; while sexual violence is reinforced most strongly by rape culture… [which is] a product of gender roles and heteronormativity. (ID 75, entry 2)

Other students noted how ignoring the high rates of violence against LGBTI individuals perpetuated the problem further: “In my… [journal entries], I focused on problematic attitudes of and towards men in heterosexual relationships … This point completely ignores the population most at risk for assault, perpetuating violent attitudes in itself” (ID 89, entry 2). Students also discussed the idea that LGBTI individuals and people of color are especially at risk because of their marginalization in the “sexual marketplace.” The latter refers to how “people are organized and ordered according to their perceived sexual desirability” (Wade, 2017, p. 225). As one student noted: “People of color and … LGBTQ + [people] are often marginalized or seen as ‘less valuable’ in the sexual marketplace, leaving them in higher danger of experiencing sexual violence” (ID 74, entry 2).

One student also described being able to see how systems of oppression were interrelated (i.e., intersectionality) vis-a-vis sexual violence:

The causes I previously stated are important … but they mostly look at the issue with an individual perspective rather than a societal one. In addition to gender inequality, racism, LGBTQ + discrimination, and misuse of power are some of the root causes of sexual violence in current society. (ID 71, entry 2)

Although this student listed the same causes previously, they did not draw connections between these causes in their first entry. Another student similarly highlighted violence against transgender women of color as a function of “racism, sexism, and transphobia.” The student further noted: “High rates of racist and anti-trans violence are coupled with low rates of consequence for perpetrators … many people assume trans people are hypersexual, which is overt victim-blaming” (ID 64, entry 2).

Racial Discrimination. Referencing of racial discrimination increased five-fold from entry 1 (5%, n = 3) to entry 2 (25%, n = 16). In the first entry, the few students who mentioned race or racism did focus on power and intersectionality root causes of sexual violence. For instance, one student described how racism might diminish victim support, especially if sexual violence was “committed by a white man against a person of a marginalized race or class,” noting that such victims might “have a greater fear of the ‘consequences’ of speaking out, if they are believed at all … [because] power imbalance as a result of … gender … wealth, race, or status causes[sic] sexual violence” (ID 35, entry 1).

In their second entries, students discussed both contemporary and historical racial discrimination (e.g., settler-colonialism) and attributed their increased awareness of these issues to the course. As one student observed: “[compared to my first entry] now, I believe the largest factor of sexual violence is discrimination … people of color experience sexual violence more often” (ID 25, entry 2). Another student described how people of color are perceived to be “easy targets” for sexual violence because of their marginalized status; that they are “exoticized and fetishized, often leaving them at higher risks of being harmed”; and that “dehumanization of people of color in hookup culture contributes to sexual violence … it is easier to take something from someone when we view them as lesser” (ID 71, entry 2).

Students also discussed colonialism as something they had not considered before taking the class: “Sexual violence is deeply rooted in the foundation of our country. Colonizers relied heavily on sexual violence against native women to institute a society in which white men were clearly at the top” (ID 69, entry 2).

Sexual Literacy Causes

Sexual literacy emerged as a third cross-cutting category. Sexual literacy refers to accurate and comprehensive sexuality knowledge and the development of relevant interpersonal and emotional skills (Shtarkshall et al., 2007). Students’ discussions of their prior sexuality education typically focused on inadequate or biased education and lack of open discussion of sexuality in schools and in relationships. Discussions of consent often emphasized myths and misunderstanding, both in learning about consent in sexuality education and practicing consent in sexual encounters. In entry 1, 12 students (19%) referenced sexuality literacy; this nearly tripled by entry 2 to 34 students (54%).

Inadequate Sexuality Education. Several students discussed inadequate sexuality education in their second entry (24%, n = 15) compared to the first (16%, n = 10). Specific topics included insufficient formal sexuality education in school; education that was biased or incomplete due to stigma in openly communicating about sex, which led students to seek information from other, often inaccurate sources, such as friends or the internet; and a lack of understanding of and education that considered female pleasure. As one student noted, part of the reason sexuality education continues to be lacking in many educational settings is because sex is considered taboo: “Because sex is (still) so taboo, we usually hardly have a decent sexual education, whether at school or at home. Being taught how sex works makes having a healthy sexual life much easier” (ID 48, entry 1).

Although students in both entries described the importance of sexuality education, in entry 2 they were more likely to connect a lack of sexuality education with concepts such as consent, rape culture, and gender norms. As one student noted: “This lack of cohesive sexual education not only establishes this dangerous ambiguity, but also, in the absence of formal [and comprehensive] education, allows for young people instead to turn to the damaging societal beliefs enforced by sexual scripts and rape culture” (ID 7, entry 2). Another student described what they thought comprehensive sexuality education should entail:

Typical sexual education is either abstinence only or it just covers biology and contraception, comprehensive sexual education focuses more on pleasure, consent, and having positive sexual experiences while also being safe and understanding how everything works. (ID 73, entry 2)

Students also remarked that comprehensive sexuality education could encompass sexual violence awareness, but educational efforts more often promoted the idea that women are responsible for preventing sexual violence. As one student noted: “prevention is [currently] geared towards girls, which continues the myth that women are responsible for preventing their own sexual assault” (ID 31, entry 2).

Some students felt that many people had inadequate knowledge because sex is a taboo subject. As one student elaborated:

Our culture has … stigmas around sex …if we introduce topics … at an earlier age on a safe and educational level … we wouldn’t feel as uncomfortable or hesitant to speak about it openly to romantic partners as we get older. (ID 34, entry 2)

Students felt that a general lack of openness about sex could potentially cause sexual violence since students would feel less comfortable discussing boundaries and their own wants and expectations during sexual interactions. While several students focused on generalized cultural taboos that inhibit communication and education and lead to inadequate sexual knowledge, others focused on the absence/stigma of discussing (female) sexual pleasure: “If we don’t include pleasure in sex education, we are reinforcing … that sex is something that men gain and women lose” (ID 91, entry 2). Another student similarly noted:

I hadn’t fully considered … the level of misconception surrounding female anatomy and …sexual pleasure for women … shame and discomfort surrounding sex in our cultural conversations … devalues the possibility of a woman having a full, enjoyable sex life … and contributes to rape culture. (ID 92, entry 2)

Consent. Lack of consent in sexual encounters was infrequently cited in entry 1 (3%, n = 2) but increased 10-fold by entry 2 (32%, n = 20). Of the two students who mentioned consent at entry 1, one linked this to inadequate “sex ed” classes that emphasized refusing sex instead of “affirmative consent”:

Many schools either don’t have sex ed classes or only teach … abstinence… without going into …factors that contribute to an affirmative notion of consent… By only teaching kids that “no means no,” schools are enabling a higher risk for sexual violence in their community. (ID 22, entry 1)

Students often noted the need for consent in sexual interactions, in addition to need for more nuanced and holistic understandings of what this consent should entail. One student also described how their thinking about consent had evolved over the semester:

I used to believe that sexual violence occurred when one purposefully ignored and abused the other's consent … I never considered … when consent is not given clearly, or if … refusal … is not clearly understood … if the communication between sexual partners is not strong enough, sexual violence can occur. (ID 34, entry 2)

Students also referenced the importance of learning body sovereignty, especially at a young age:

When we fail to educate children about their rights over their own bodies, we are setting them up to participate in rape culture. Teaching body sovereignty … means encouraging [children] to set and enforce boundaries, listen to their own bodies, and respect the verbal and non-verbal cues of others. (ID 23, entry 2)

Individual and Life-Course Issue Causes

A notable number of students identified individual-level and life-course-specific issues as determinants of sexual violence. This included referencing individual traits, which students often described as being innate, or as being caused by negative or harmful experiences during childhood. In entry 1, 19% of students (n = 12) referenced causes in the individual and life course category, whereas 13% (n = 8) did in entry two.

Personal Traits. “Individual traits” was the fourth most commonly cited cause in entry 1 (19%, n = 12), but declined to only four students (6%) by entry 2. This included factors like mental illness and other psychological attributes, hormones, biology, or innate qualities from birth. Several students attributed sexual violence to individual psychological attributes: “predators … [not] fully understand[ing] their own sexuality” (ID 13, entry 1), people having a “psychological lack of empathy” [ID 92, entry 1], and “sadists [who] seek the gratification that comes from assaulting a person” (ID 87, entry 1). A few students focused less on psycho-pathology and more on common, adverse emotions such as insecurity, fear, or anger: “When someone is afraid and … not getting what they want, they act out [in violent ways]” (ID 68, entry 1). A few students drew connections between anger, hormones or “biology,” and male dominance:

People with unusually high testosterone levels are more prone to violence … People who have aggression issues tend to be more impulsive and have antisocial tendencies, and they lack the ability to differentiate between sex and aggression. (ID 71, entry 1)

Notably, students less frequently referenced individual traits in their second journal entries. For instance, one student initially discussed “sexism and excess sexual desire” as a major cause of sexual violence. At the end of the semester, however, they stated: “sexual desire … should not be considered as the root because humans are different from animals—we can control our action when the hormone is rising [sic]. Sexism is the best [explanation for] … sexual violence” (ID 93, entry 2). Another student similarly described their change in thinking:

At the beginning of the semester, I believed that the root causes … were “mental depravation, lack of control, and the societal image of male superiority.” While I still believe that mental illness and lack of self-control play a role … toxic gender roles … is the ultimate cause [sic]. (ID 62, entry 2)

Upbringing. Eleven percentage of students (n = 7) attributed sexual violence to causes such as poverty, childhood trauma, and childhood upbringing in their first entry. This stayed relatively stable over time, with 10% (n = 6) referencing this in their second entry. One student stated: “Poverty and power lead sexual assault into a routine …victims are continually victimized due to their poor quality of life” (ID 87, entry 1). Other students focused on “family issues” and childhood “environment”: “Parents sometimes do not show their children the love and attention they require, causing them to have deep emotional pains leading them to seek that love and attention even if it is not mutual” (ID 28, entry 1). Another student similarly felt that sexual violence might be caused by a lack of emotional investment from parents, in addition to being a learned behavior: “If a child grew up in a home where it was regular for their parent to commit … sexual violence … the child will view this act as normal” (ID 30, entry 1). A few students mentioned childhood trauma as initiating individuals into a cycle of first being a victim and later a perpetrator:

[Childhood trauma] can also cause psychological issues which lead perpetrators … to commit sexual violence…People who have witnessed violence in the home or have distant emotional relationships with parents tend to develop more violent personalities. (ID 71, entry 1)