Women and Peace-Building: A Case Study of the Guji–Gedio Conflict in Southern Ethiopia

Abstract

This study examines the critical roles of women in post-conflict peace-building, with a particular focus on the Guji–Gedio conflict in southern Ethiopia. Using a qualitative research approach that integrates primary and secondary data, the study draws insights from 61 participants through key informant interviews, in-depth discussions with community members, and focus group sessions with women. The findings reveal that, despite enduring significant hardships during conflict, women's contributions to peace-building are severely restricted by entrenched patriarchal norms, traditional gender expectations, and limited access to education. The study underscores the pressing need for targeted interventions to dismantle these structural barriers and foster inclusive, equitable, and sustainable peace-building processes.

Keywords

women peace-building Guji Gedio conflict

Postconflict peace efforts demand the meaningful involvement of all members of affected societies for sustainable and inclusive peace, as underscored by the Inter-Religious Council of Ethiopia (IRCE) in 2021. However, many formal peace-building endeavors overlook diverse community segments, particularly women, despite the recognition of their pivotal roles in peace processes by the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325. Remenyi (2016) emphasizes the imperative of studying women's engagement in postconflict peace-building within affected societies.

Despite historically playing crucial roles in conflict resolution and peace formation, women often face marginalization in postconflict peace-building initiatives. The adoption of the UN Security Council Resolution 1325 in 2000 marked a significant milestone, prompting increased attention to women's participation in peace processes. This resolution acknowledged women's roles in peace-building and highlighted the adverse impact of armed conflicts on women, stressing that their exclusion from the peace process jeopardizes peace itself (Bell & O'Rourke, 2010).

However, characterizing women solely as victims of conflict is narrow and incomplete. While women may experience victimization, they can also actively contribute to conflict resolution and peace-building efforts. Recent research emphasizes moving beyond dichotomous views of women in conflict, recognizing the coexistence of victimhood and agency (Anne-Kathrin & Philipp, 2022; Caoimhe de, 2021). It is crucial to acknowledge women's multifaceted experiences, strengths, and potential contributions to peace.

Recognizing the marginalization of women in postconflict peace-building efforts is critical, given the significant contributions they could offer (Schnabel & Tabyshalieva, 2012). This exclusion stems from both historical and current patriarchal structures (Shulika, 2016). Scholarly literature suggests that women have shown considerable adeptness in leveraging their positions within postconflict environments to champion peace-building efforts, effecting positive change at the grassroots and national levels (Arostegui, 2013).

Women play crucial roles in postconflict peace-building and conflict transformation, contributing to community resilience, peace initiatives, and cultural change at the local level (Ochieng, 2019). Various organizations emphasize the necessity of women's participation in peace processes for sustainable conflict resolution and lasting peace (United States Institute of Peace, 2017). Despite their critical role in local conflict resolution in Ethiopia, formal involvement in broader peace-building processes remains limited for women (Eyayu, 2020).

Marginalizing women from postconflict peace-building processes perpetuates gender inequities, hindering comprehensive and inclusive efforts necessary for lasting reconciliation. Recognizing the nuanced impact of conflict on women and actively involving them in shaping postconflict peace-building initiatives are strategically critical for the overall success and sustainability of peace efforts (Arostegui, 2013). Women face significant barriers to active engagement in postconflict peace-building projects, including persistent societal norms, security concerns, economic constraints, and institutional hurdles (Kirabira & Lee-Winter, 2023). Addressing these issues is crucial to promoting a more inclusive and effective postconflict peace-building process (Adedokun, 2017).

Persistent societal norms, security threats, economic limitations, and institutional obstacles pose significant barriers to women's active involvement in postconflict peace-building endeavors, constraining their participation and impact on decision-making processes. Despite efforts, the United Nations reports that women accounted for only 16% of negotiators or delegates in four out of five active UN-led or co-led peace processes in 2022 (UN, 2023). This stark underrepresentation undermines the thorough integration of gender perspectives into peace agreements (360info, 2023). To address these issues, the UN advocates for heightened female representation across all decision-making levels within national, regional, and international conflict management frameworks (Kirabira & Lee-Winter, 2023).

Research conducted in Ethiopia underscores the necessity of collaborative endeavors to overcome barriers obstructing women's active engagement in peace-building initiatives. The involvement of both men and women is deemed essential for fostering enduring peace across various spheres, including family, community, education, employment, markets, places of worship, and beyond (Wright & Welsh, 2014). This cooperative approach aligns with the United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP) initiatives in Ethiopia, which have assessed regions such as Oromia and Somali, emphasizing women's roles in peace-building and reconciliation (UNDP, 2022).

When peace-building initiatives are solely spearheaded by men, it mirrors the prevailing male dominance within the community and reinforces entrenched power structures. The inclusion of masculinities in peace-building efforts is pivotal for tackling multifaceted violence and promoting gender equality endeavors (Wright & Welsh, 2014). In situations with prevalent gender-based violence, adopting a gender-sensitive approach in the peace-building process is crucial. Conducting a gender analysis at the start of the peace initiative, specifically examining the impact of the conflict on gender dynamics and the role of women in peace-building, is of utmost importance. This was recognized by the IRCE in 2021 report which states that:

To achieve lasting peace in society, it is essential to conduct a comprehensive assessment of women's fundamental issues and establish a framework that upholds their rights. Women, in turn, need to actively engage in societal affairs, address their challenges, and exert influence over decisions impacting their lives, including their roles in post-conflict peace-building processes. (IRCE, 2021)

Despite the disproportionate impact of conflicts on women's lives, there is a significant underrepresentation of women in peace negotiations and community rebuilding efforts postconflict—a global phenomenon observed not only in Africa but worldwide. According to United States Institute of Peace (2017), women make up less than 10% of global peace negotiators and a mere 3% of peace treaty signatories. Despite the pivotal role women play in stabilizing communities affected by conflict, this underrepresentation hinders their ability to shape the postconflict landscape effectively (Merab, 2019). This is the case in Ethiopia as the IRCE (2021) recognizes:

In societies characterized by male dominance and gender bias, men may have limited awareness of the importance of women's participation. This holds true in Ethiopia, where women bear a disproportionate burden of victimization compared to men, necessitating a thorough examination of their roles in the post-conflict peace-building process. (IRCE, 2021, p. 7)

Recognizing violence against women as a critical concern for peace, security, and human rights has garnered global attention (Ni Aolain, 2014). Extensive evidence emphasizes the importance of involving women in peace-building efforts in conflict situations, underlining the recurring and vital issue of their inclusion in postconflict peace-building programs (United States Institute of Peace, 2022).

Guji–Geido Conflict

The Guji–Gedio conflict in southern Ethiopia is one of the most protracted ethnic conflicts in the country, rooted in long-standing tensions over land, resources, and ethnic identity. The conflict has seen repeated cycles of violence, displacement, and social fragmentation, with severe consequences for the affected communities. Women, in particular, have borne the brunt of these impacts, often experiencing disproportionate levels of violence, loss of livelihood, and disruption of family structures. Despite their suffering, women have also played critical but underrecognized roles in fostering reconciliation, mediating between conflicting groups, and supporting community recovery. However, patriarchal norms, rigid gender roles, and a lack of formal recognition have limited their influence in formal peace-building efforts.

The Guji–Gedio conflict, which commenced in 2018, resulted in significant human and material losses. Efforts toward peace and reconciliation were initiated on February 5th, 2020. World Vision Ethiopia introduced the “European Union-funded Collaborative Action for Peace” project with the aim of fostering social cohesion and reconciliation between the Gedeo and Guji communities in Dilla and Bule Hora towns.

The reconciliation event held on February 4th and 5th, 2020 was attended by notable figures including Abba Gedaas, representatives from Dilla and Bule Hora universities, community members, and senior government officials from both the Oromia and South Nations Nationalities Peoples regions (World Vision Ethiopia, 2020). This study endeavors to investigate the roles and positions of women within the framework of the peace process concerning the Guji–Gedio conflict. It seeks to examine the challenges that have impeded women from making meaningful contributions to peace efforts.

The Guji–Gedio conflict in 2018 displaced approximately half a million women, disrupting their lives and leaving lasting impacts on both the Guji and Gedio communities. The conflict adversely affected crucial infrastructure that adversely affected women, including hospitals, clinics, and essential utilities like water and electricity. Furthermore, the violence severely hindered women's ability to sustain their livelihoods. It is generally accepted that the Guji–Gedio conflict and associated violence have disproportionately affected women (IOM, 2019).

The conflict has had far-reaching effects on women, including relocation, vulnerability, economic well-being, emotional ramifications, and access to education (OCHA, 2018). Forced displacement left women more vulnerable, disrupting their daily lives and livelihoods. The violence has also worsened economic challenges, creating new obstacles to financial stability. Those who witnessed or experienced the conflict have faced psychosocial repercussions such as trauma and mental distress (OCHA, 2018).

In the aftermath of the conflict, examining women's active participation in postconflict peace-building becomes crucial. Understanding the extent to which women have contributed is vital for evaluating their resilience, community-building, advocacy, and leadership roles. Their involvement in shaping the postconflict landscape demonstrates dedication to rebuilding communities and fostering long-term peace, ranging from lobbying for the rights of impacted individuals to assuming leadership responsibilities (OCHA, 2018).

Women's participation in the Guji–Gedio postconflict peace-building processes is minimal despite severe vulnerability and grave impacts (Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, 2020). This is evident in the lack of women's involvement in decision-making, governance, and planning processes. The search results do not specifically mention the Guji–Gedio conflict, but they do provide insights into the general challenges women face in postconflict peace-building processes (Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, 2020). This discrepancy between the significant consequences of conflicts on women and their limited role in postconflict peace-building raises a critical concern within the broader peace-building framework which has largely been neglected in existing studies.

Given the underexplored contributions of women in peace-building, this study addresses the need for a focused examination of their roles in postconflict settings, particularly in the context of the Guji–Gedio conflict. The research aims to fill the gap in the literature by exploring the challenges and opportunities faced by women in contributing to peace efforts. By investigating how patriarchal systems and sociocultural factors hinder women's participation, the study seeks to provide insights into how these barriers can be overcome. Therefore, this study aims to address these gaps by providing answers to the following research questions:

How did the Guji–Gedio conflict specifically affect women?

To what extent have women been actively involved in postconflict peace-building activities?

What are the key challenges that hinder women's active participation in postconflict peace-building initiatives?

Research Design

Research Approach

The study embraced a qualitative approach, drawing from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data collection took place in specific Woredas of the Guji Zone (Abaya and Galana¹) and Gedeo Zone (Yirga Cheffe and Gedeb²) from April to May 2023. Rather than quantifying the issues within the study population, the study aimed to understand the perceptions and opinions of the participants. Viswambharan and Priya (2016) note that qualitative research systematically describes and interprets phenomena from the perspective of those being studied, generating new concepts and theories. The selection of methods was guided by the research questions.

This study adopted a phenomenological research design, crucial for exploring the lived experiences of women in conflict. Phenomenology focuses on understanding individuals’ subjective experiences and interpretations, providing insights into their motivations, emotions, and coping strategies (Larenda, 2012; Mannell et al., 2021). Phenomenology was chosen for its ability to uncover the subjective experiences and meanings of individuals, offering valuable insights into their motivations, emotions, and coping strategies amid the Guji–Gedio conflict.

Phenomenological research design allowed for a deep exploration of the conflict context, particularly focusing on the roles of women in peace-building efforts. This approach involved delving into the fundamental characteristics, meanings, and implications associated with the chosen case study, contributing to a comprehensive understanding (Larenda, 2012). The selection of study areas was based on the severity of conflict experienced and their hosting significant migrant populations during the conflict. Purposive sampling was employed to select participants, ensuring alignment with research questions and upholding research ethics. Given the widespread impact of the Guji–Gedio conflict, selecting participants posed challenges due to the vast affected population.

Numerous challenges were encountered in recruiting participants. While there was a high level of interest, eligibility criteria (not scientific criteria) had to be strictly applied to ensure that participants met the required knowledge depth, experience with the research topic, and relevance to the study's objectives. The challenges included balancing accessibility with the need for participants to meet these criteria and ensuring a representative mix of viewpoints across gender, age, and sociopolitical background. Many potential participants expressed interest but did not meet these eligibility criteria.

Eligibility criteria were applied in selecting participants, considering factors such as their knowledge, diverse viewpoints, and willingness to participate. As a result, 13 participants were chosen for key informant interviews (KIIs), while 20 women participated in in-depth interviews (IDIs), and 28 individuals were involved in focus group interviews (FGIs), bringing the total number of participants to 61. The study focused on individuals with direct experiences related to postconflict peace-building, particularly those affected by the Guji–Gedio conflict.

The study utilized three different qualitative data collection methods: KIIs, IDIs, and FGIs.

KIIs involved discussions with individuals possessing specialized knowledge, such as community leaders, government officials, and experts in peace-building. Thirteen participants were selected for these interviews, which explored high-level insights about the conflict and peace-building efforts.

IDIs were used to gather detailed, personal perspectives, especially from individuals directly affected by the conflict. Twenty female participants, representing those most impacted by the conflict, were involved in these semistructured interviews. These interviews provided deep insights into personal experiences, focusing on the effects of the conflict and their involvement in peace-building.

FGIs engaged 28 participants in group discussions (in four sessions) moderated by a facilitator. The group interactions encouraged participants to discuss common themes and challenges, fostering a collective dialog. The focus groups specifically explored the impacts of the Guji–Gedio conflict on women, women's roles in peace-building, and the barriers to their active participation.

Data collection was sequential, beginning with KIIs to establish broad contextual insights. This was followed by IDIs, which provided more detailed personal experiences. Finally, FGIs were conducted to encourage broader discussion among participants, validating and expanding on the themes identified in previous phases.

There were a total of four focus groups, with questions designed to explore the same overarching themes but tailored to encourage group interaction. For example, one focus group might discuss, “What specific roles have women in your community played in postconflict peace-building?” while another might ask, “What are the main challenges preventing women from taking leadership roles in peace-building efforts?”

Data collection occurred from April to May 2023 in the local language, with professional translators providing English translations. The research employed a mix of KIIs, IDIs, and focus group discussions. KIIs provided specialized knowledge on conflict resolution strategies, while IDIs explored personal experiences. Focus group discussions offered a platform for collective insights into the challenges and roles of women in peace-building.

The collected data were analyzed using thematic analysis technique. Three primary themes emerged: impacts of the conflict on women, women's involvement in peace-building, and challenges hindering participation. Coding involved identifying themes across data by reading and rereading transcripts.

Ethical Considerations

The study prioritized rigorous ethical standards to ensure the protection and dignity of all participants. Ethical approval was obtained from the relevant institutional review board before the commencement of the research, ensuring that the study adhered to the highest ethical guidelines. Informed consent was obtained from all participants after they were fully briefed on the purpose, scope, and procedures of the study. Participants were made aware of their right to withdraw from the research at any stage without any consequences or obligations.

To maintain confidentiality, all data was anonymized, and any identifying information was carefully removed to protect the identities of the participants. The study also took measures to minimize potential harm, including psychological distress, by creating a safe and supportive environment for interviews and focus group discussions. Participants were given the opportunity to skip questions or end the discussion if they felt uncomfortable.

Throughout the research process, scientific integrity was upheld by ensuring the accuracy and transparency of data collection and analysis. Additionally, the study was conducted with full respect for human rights, particularly in the context of working with vulnerable populations affected by conflict. The research team was trained in handling sensitive topics related to conflict and gender-based violence, ensuring that the participants’ well-being remained a top priority.

Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Research Ethics Committee on May 10, 2023 (Ethics Reference Number: Hu-GaDs-RE-104/23). The Committee thoroughly reviewed the study's ethical considerations, including participant consent, data confidentiality, and potential risks. All procedures were conducted in compliance with institutional ethical standards and the 1964 Helsinki Declaration, as amended. Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved.

Results and Discussion

Conflict and Women: Antagonists and Victims

According to the International Organization for Migration report, the conflict that started in 2018 displaced approximately half a million women. The conflict profoundly impacted both the Guji and the Gedio, and at the time of the research, the effects were still being felt by the women who live in the study area. International nongovernmental organizations were forced to leave the area due to the violence. As a result, the services that women relied on such as hospitals and clinics could not be provided. In line with this, FGD participants verified that:

The conflict significantly impacted the infrastructures that support Gedio women. Hospitals and clinics all experienced disruptions, as well as utilities like water and electricity services. The lack of water and electricity has a particularly harmful effect on women because they normally take care of cooking meals for the family. (FGD, Gedeb Woreda, Gedio, 2023)

In Gedio Zone, a survey by Dilla University's Loss Assessment indicated that 60,681 people from 8,261 homes, or 7.35 people per family, were displaced due to the violence in conflict-affected Woredas (Dilla University, 2018). The study states that half of them were women. The conflict resulted in serious damage to livestock and crops, looting of other possessions and assets, and destruction of homes, household items, public buildings, and social infrastructures (Dilla University, 2018). This impeded the ability of women to support their livelihoods in addition to the negative impacts of the violence on them personally.

On the Guji side, according to a 2019 report by the IOM, the Guji community experienced severe repercussions in the aftermath of the Guji–Gedio conflict. The report reveals that, as of August 2018, an alarming 748,499 internally displaced persons emerged solely from the Gedeo–West Guji conflict. Notably, half of this displaced population comprised women, highlighting the significant gender dimension of the impact of the conflict (IOM, 2019).

Although women were not directly involved in the interethnic conflicts, their role was significant. This is because every man who carries a gun has a woman in his life (Georgia, 2015). Recognizing the family as the basic unit essential to building a flourishing society emphasizes the importance of women in these positions (Mohamed, 2003). Women are not only victims of the conflict but also actors who can influence their husbands and act as catalysts of conflict as the summary of an FGD below articulates:

In the Gedeo–Guji inter-ethnic conflict women were one of the actors that played a key role in stimulating the conflict. However, they were not directly involved in the conflict. Both Gedeo and Guji FGD participants affirmed that women were one of the actors of the interethnic conflict. The major roles as an actor include: preparing food, encouraging their husbands and sons, helping victims, disseminating messages about the conflict around villages, taking care of their children and property and welcoming fighters from battle fields. (FGD, Galana and Gedeb Woredas, 2023)

The role of women in fueling discord among young people and within households was notable, as they actively participated in and contributed to conflict situations, whether directly or indirectly. Women engaged in conflict by endorsing war songs, participating in provocative dances, employing allegory, nurturing romantic relationships that may fuel tensions, and employing various practices that escalate conflicts (KII, Gedeb Woreda, 2023). Furthermore, women played a significant role in encouraging husbands and youth groups to engage in clashes with other ethnic groups, promoting violence, and looting. Through patronage and the endorsement of activities, local women's groups contributed to conflict escalation (KII, Dilla, 2023).

A study undertaken by Mohamed (2003) supports the findings of our research as this statement from his study demonstrates:

Women are accused of using various ways of instigating men to go to war. They praise men who join the war without hesitation and at the same time they also ridicule, nag and abuse those who are reluctant to join the war. They bless conflicts and prepare food beforehand, and welcome those who return with blessings, songs and dances. During conflicts they have the power to initiate and give moral support to their husbands, fathers, sons and brothers. Songs are sung, particularly by young women, to give courage to the men. (Mohamed, 2003, p. 85)

Empowering women is a key to mitigating conflicts. By strengthening their position in society, women can actively work to prevent conflicts by implementing measures to deescalate tensions. Their involvement can draw attention to the consequences of conflicts, emphasizing the urgency of addressing issues before they escalate into violence (KII, Bule-Hora, 2023). Moreover, according to key informants, women experienced significant harm and fatalities amid the Gedeo–Guji interethnic conflict.

Women play a significant role in the traditional conflict resolution of Gonderoo,³ a method widely employed by both the Gugji and Gedio people. The Gugji and Gedio ethnic groups, having coexisted for an extended period, share numerous similarities, experiencing periods of peace, cooperation, and harmony as well as occasional conflicts. Within this framework, women assume a crucial role by facilitating peace negotiations and bringing conflicting parties together for resolution (KII, Bule Hora, Dilla and Gedeb Woreda, 2023).

Those affected by the conflict also relocated to the nearby Woredas’ in order to protect themselves from the effects of the conflict. These women were reported as not being equipped with weapons. Other sources from both Gedeo and Guji also said that women who defended their offspring or property were at risk of harm or even death. In a similar vein, the Guji–Gedio conflict had profound consequences for the Guji community.

Therefore, the authors conclude that the conflict that started in 2018 had a profound impact on both the Guji and Gedio communities, with approximately half a million women being displaced. Empowering women is critical to mitigating conflicts, as their involvement in peace-building efforts can help deescalate tensions and draw attention to the consequences of conflicts. Women also play a crucial role in traditional conflict resolution methods, such as the Gonderoo method, where they facilitate peace negotiations and bring conflicting parties together for resolution. Hence, addressing the gender dimension of conflicts and empowering women is essential for effective postconflict peace-building and sustainable development.

Roles of Women in Peace-Building Processes

International efforts for peace and security have increasingly integrated gender, especially with the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1325, recognizing the connection between conflict levels and gender inequality (Wright, 2020). In the postconflict transition, women's meaningful participation is crucial for ensuring durable peace and security. The exclusion of women from global conflict resolution forfeits half of the world's potential (Poudel, 2017).

When women are more represented the likelihood of new conflicts decreases, offering postconflict nations an opportunity to encourage their participation in societal reconstruction for gender equality (Christien & Mukhtarova, 2020). However, women are frequently excluded from peace and reconciliation efforts despite being more likely to become victims during war and also often being antagonists (Chandler, 2016). Empowering women in decision-making during conflict resolution signifies a fundamental shift in societal paradigms (Christien & Mukhtarova, 2020).

Women serve as victims, survivors, leaders, and policymakers in armed conflicts but are systematically excluded from decision-making due to societal norms. By promoting mutual respect, understanding, and communication between genders, it is possible to shift the dynamics toward constructive conflict resolution and peace-building efforts (Torregrosa, 2011). In addition, actively engaging women in conflict-affected areas would enhance confidence and foster stable relationships with local populations (Murari et al., 2017). Despite being primary victims of conflict, women's perspectives often go unnoticed in postconflict discussions. Peace-building efforts in Ethiopia and Africa at large consistently strive to increase women's participation.

In line with the above, Torregrosa (2011), to reverse the trend where women instigate conflict directly or through their male-folks and empower them to be influential peace builders, there are societal shifts and changes in gender roles that can be encouraged. Torregrosa (2011) argues that recognizing these differences and promoting communication strategies that bridge these gaps can be crucial in fostering peace-building skills among both genders. Key informants consistently affirmed the significance of including women, stating:

The inclusion of women in peace-building is crucial to avoid male-dominated decision-making that might negatively impact women's rights. Consequently, guaranteeing equal access and the active participation of women in efforts related to conflict prevention and resolution is indispensable for the preservation, promotion, and sustainability of peace and security. (FGD, 2023)

Women, who can directly instigate, inspire, or encourage conflict either independently or through their male counterparts (Torregrosa, 2011), can also play crucial roles in stabilizing situations and fostering peace, particularly given their frequent victimization in instances of violence (Conaway & Sen, 2005). Furthermore, women serve as potent symbols of peace and collaboration through a variety of avenues. To begin, a woman nurtures understanding within the context of her marital relationship. Second, she develops bridges between her family and her husband's family. Third, she serves as a unifying influence, establishing links between her clan or group and that of her marriage partner (Mohamed, 2003).

Women constitute a respected traditional institution that actively opposes male domination and patriarchy, serving as staunch protectors of women's rights. During domestic violence, the Haadha Siinqee⁴ not only express their opposition but also employ traditional verdicts, punishments, and compensation mechanisms to ensure justice for the affected women within the Guji community (KII, Bule Hora, Guji, 2023).

A significant aspect of their role involves acting as agents for reconciliation within the community. Particularly in cases of homicide, Haadha Siingees utilize their respected position to bring conflicting parties together. Employing their traditional sticks, they facilitate the reconciliation process and effectively mediate disputes arising from violent intraethnic incidents (KII, Bule Hora, Guji, 2023).

The esteem with which the community regards Haadha Siingees is evident in their widespread respect. Beyond symbolic acknowledgment, these women have a tangible influence, notably in traditional conflict resolution processes embedded in the “Gondoroo” practice. This traditional system, designed for conflict resolution and reconciliation in blood feuds, provides a structured framework where Haadha Siingees wield their authority to stop revenge cycles and foster harmony within the community (KII, Gelana, Guji, 2023).

Consequently, the KIIs provided insights into the diverse functions of Haadha Siingees, including:

Advocating women's rights, participating in reconciliation initiatives, and making meaningful contributions to the traditional conflict resolution processes in the Guji Oromo community are a few of the multifaceted roles. Nevertheless, their role is significantly confined to resolving intraethnic conflicts that occurred within the Guji community. (KII, Bule Hora, Guji, 2023)

In Gedio, women's involvement in peace-building is less developed compared to Guji's Haadha Siingees. When conflict indicators emerged, discussions in Gedio involved political leaders, local elders, and youth representatives, excluding women from the peace process. In contrast, Guji women, facilitated by their traditional institution Haadha Siingee, actively engaged in the postconflict peace process (FGD, Yiga Chefee, 2023).

Regarding the absence of equivalent traditional institutions in Gedio and the constrained involvement of women in conflict resolution and other social endeavors, key informants stated that:

In the realm of peace-building, the level of women's engagement in Gedio appears less advanced when juxtaposed with the established structures observed in Guji's Haadha Siingees. Within the Guji community, there exists a robust traditional framework known as the “Gedaa”⁵ system, which incorporates a distinct wing and institution representing females, termed “Haadha Siingee.” Through this system, women assert their rights and fulfill their social roles. Conversely, the absence of a comparable traditional system within the Gedio Community has resulted in women lacking similar opportunities to establish their own institutional presence. (KII, Gedio, Yirgacheffe, 2023)

The effectiveness of the Guji Haadda Siinqee women's institution in resolving intraethnic conflicts diminishes when conflicts escalate to interethnic levels. Gedio does not acknowledge or accept the role of Haadha Siingee, limiting its conflict resolution to the Guji community (KII, Yiga Chefee, 2023).

Following the resolution of the Guji–Gedio conflict, women's participation in the peace-building process was notably scarce, if not entirely absent. During preconflict negotiations among regional leaders, women's contributions and positions were minimal, despite being the primary victims of the conflict and in some cases being antagonists in the study area. Unfortunately, women received little attention during the peace-building process (FGD, Gedeb, 2023). The following transcription from a Key Informant illustrates this point:

Of the 21 participants in the peace discussion, none were women. Not surprisingly representatives from both sides and all segments (political leaders, local elders, and youth) were male. Unfortunately the delegates of the men's peace discussion failed to prevent the occurrence of conflict. Even some of the delegates during preconflict peace talks were alleged to have instigated conflict during the clash. During the conflict women, youth, children, elderly people and disabilities were the primary victims of direct and indirect consequences of conflict in the area. (KII, Yiga Chefee, 2023)

In line with the previously mentioned data, Sebsib et al. (2021) argue that the limited involvement of women implies that their contributions remain peripheral, potentially leading to an absence of justice as their grievances may not be adequately addressed in the conflict transformation process.

The key informant emphasized that the scant involvement and roles of women in Guji–Gedio conflict resolution initiatives give rise to justice concerns. The marginal participation of women implies that their contributions are limited, potentially leading to a lack of justice, as their grievances may not receive sufficient attention in the conflict transformation process (KII, Dilla, 2023).

The inclusion of women in peace-making and reconciliation processes, as highlighted by Development and Peace (2017), brings distinct perspectives and priorities compared to men. Women not only consider the short-term benefits of peace but also contribute comprehensively to long-term needs, including the education of their children and the maintenance of stable relationships with their neighbors and the broader community they reside in.

Consistent with this view, key informants confirmed that:

Women inclusion in postconflict peace-building activities and processes in Guji–Gedio should provide different views and priorities than men. Women are not only concerned with the short-term benefits of peace; rather, they want to ensure long-term trust in peace promotion and human rights protection. Women look after their children, husbands, and communities in addition to themselves. (KII, Yirga Chefee, 2023)

Challenges of Women's Engagement in Postconflict Peace-Building

Patriarchal norms and traditional gender roles

According to Justino et al. (2018), sociocultural barriers are among the structural obstacles limiting women's success in peace-building. Cultural influence, social norms, and patriarchal values confine women to domestic roles, discouraging their participation outside the home. This would appear to be the situation in the research area as this transcription from an FGD demonstrates:

In the Guji–Gedio study area, women contend with a dual burden, bearing responsibilities both in their households and communities. At home, women are tasked with the labor-intensive duties of preparing meals for their families, fetching water, and collecting firewood, often from remote areas. Additionally, they assume caregiving roles for children and elders, adding multiple layers to their daily responsibilities. (FGD, Gedio, 2023)

The cultural prevalence of Enset⁶ as a food item in the region places an increased responsibility on women for the preparation of Enset-based dishes to their family. This cultural expectation adds an extra burden, limiting women's engagement in public or community matters. Juggling domestic duties, women often await their husbands' return to participate in peace processes (FGD, Guji, 2023).

Cultural norms further impede women's involvement in public affairs, assigning gender-based responsibilities. While men actively participate in peace-building, women are confined to domestic tasks. Their participation is indirect, seeking updates on the peace process from their husbands. This pattern reflects an unequal distribution of responsibilities, restricting women to the domestic sphere (KII, FGD, Guji and Gedio, 2023).

The exclusion and marginalization of women in the peace-building process and political participation in the Gedaa system from the Guji perspective traced back to the time of Akko Manoye, the last queen of the Oromo before the establishment of the Gedaa system as is explained below:

Once upon a time, there was a woman whose name was Akko Manoye. She ruled the Oromo society in an absolute dictatorship. During her rule, every task including caring for a family was performed by husbands, and every decision was made by women. She always ordered men to accomplish things that were impossible for them. The Oromo people tolerated such acts of the woman for several years. From then onwards, men took power, established a Gedaa system and declared that women should not take part in it. (Jirata, 2019, p. 5)

The mythological narrative above justifies the belief in women's inefficacy in administration and politics. To defend women's exclusion from traditional governance, the narrative highlights corrupt acts during the queen's leadership. Despite criticism of the Akkoo regime by the new male-Mootii rulers, Gujii women recognize the myth's legitimizing potential and seek to use it for empowerment in rituals and prayers.

FGD discussants underscored the importance of addressing patriarchal norms and gender-specific issues to foster an inclusive and sustainable postconflict peace-building process in the Guji–Gedio context. A comprehensive approach was regarded as essential, one that acknowledges the unique challenges women face and actively promotes their empowerment and participation in decision-making processes (FGD, 2023 Gedio, 2023).

In the context of the Guji–Gedio postconflict peace-building, the persistence of deeply ingrained traditional gender roles poses a significant impediment to women's active participation in the decision-making processes crucial to rebuilding and reconciliation. Traditional norms often confine women to domestic roles, relegating them to the private sphere and limiting their visibility in public discourse (Interview, Dilla, 2023).

As a result, women find themselves excluded from formal discussions related to peace-building, where key decisions are made. Overcoming these traditional gender roles requires a concerted effort to challenge societal expectations and promote gender inclusivity. By dismantling these restrictive norms, women can transcend domestic confines and contribute meaningfully to the development of strategies and policies that address the specific needs of their communities in the aftermath of conflict, fostering a more equitable and inclusive post-conflict peace-building process (FGD, Abaya and Yirga Chefee, 2023).

Consistent with this view, Sow and Dahal state that in societies characterized by male dominance, where patriarchal norms prevail, women are frequently seen as inadequately prepared to handle conflicts, whether in the context of initiating hostilities or assuming the role of peacemakers. This case study confirms this:

In the aftermath of the Guji–Gedio conflict, pervasive cultural stigma and entrenched societal norms act as formidable barriers for women seeking to engage in postconflict peace-building. Women may find themselves discouraged from speaking out or participating in public forums due to prevailing cultural attitudes that assign traditional roles and expectations. (KII, Yirga Chefee and Abaya, 2023)

The stigma associated with women expressing their opinions or taking on leadership roles in the public sphere can inhibit their confidence and willingness to contribute to peace-building efforts. Overcoming this challenge requires a concerted effort to challenge and reshape cultural narratives that limit women's agency as a number of key informants articulated:

Moreover, in the aftermath of the Guji–Gedio conflict, women often bear the brunt of the conflict's impact, experiencing profound trauma and psychosocial challenges that act as formidable barriers to their active involvement in the peace-building process. The scars of conflict can manifest in various ways, affecting women's mental and emotional well-being. Trauma may result from direct exposure to violence, displacement, or the loss of loved ones. (KII, Gedio, 2023)

In the aftermath of the Guji–Gedio conflict, the postconflict environment unfortunately perpetuates a culture of violence against women, presenting a formidable obstacle to their meaningful participation in public life and peace-building initiatives. Women in these circumstances may face heightened risks of physical and psychological harm, deterring them from actively engaging in community affairs or expressing their perspectives on the peace-building process (Interview, Dilla, 2023).

Limited access to education and economic disempowerment

In the aftermath of the Guji–Gedio conflict, gender-specific challenges could significantly impede women's active involvement in postconflict peace-building efforts. One such obstacle is the limited access to education faced by women in the region. This lack of experience presents both apparent and actual obstacles to their meaningful involvement in peace-building endeavors. Educational barriers may stem from deeply rooted societal gender norms and structural inequalities, preventing women from acquiring the knowledge and skills necessary for meaningful engagement in peace-building activities (KII, Yiga Chefee and FGD, Gelana, 2023). As many participants stated:

The lack of educational opportunities not only hampers women's understanding of the intricacies of the peace process but also diminishes their capacity to contribute constructively to initiatives aimed at rebuilding their communities. By addressing these educational disparities and fostering an environment that promotes equal access to learning, the postconflict peace-building process can benefit from the diverse perspectives and insights that women bring to the table, ultimately leading to more comprehensive and sustainable outcomes. (KII and FGD, Gelana, 2023)

Economic disempowerment also emerges as a critical issue hindering women's active involvement in the postconflict peace-building process in the Guji–Gedio region. Women often confront significant economic challenges, including restricted access to resources, credit, and employment opportunities. The lack of financial independence not only limits their individual agency but also undermines their collective capacity to participate effectively in peace-building initiatives. Economic disempowerment can perpetuate gender disparities, hindering women from accessing education, healthcare, and other essential services (Interview, Bule Hora and Dilla, 2023).

Additionally, the absence of financial autonomy may marginalize women in decision-making processes, as economic dependence can be wielded as a tool of control. To foster a more inclusive and sustainable peace-building effort, addressing economic disparities and promoting women's access to resources and economic opportunities is imperative, empowering them to contribute meaningfully to the rebuilding and development of their communities (FGD, Abaya and Gelana, 2023).

Moreover, women face a distinct set of challenges related to health issues that can significantly impede their participation in postconflict peace-building efforts. Often, women's health concerns, including reproductive health issues, are overlooked amidst the broader landscape of reconstruction. This neglect not only jeopardizes their overall well-being but also hampers their ability to actively engage in peace-building processes as is described below:

Limited access to reproductive healthcare, maternal services, and family planning can have profound implications for women's physical and mental health, impacting their capacity to contribute meaningfully to community development. Addressing women's health issues is not only a matter of individual well-being but also a critical component of creating an environment where women can fully participate in shaping the future of their communities after conflict. Integrating gender-sensitive healthcare policies and ensuring equitable access to healthcare resources are crucial steps toward fostering women's active involvement in postconflict peace-building. (FGD, KII, Guji and Gedio, 2023)

Conclusion

The primary and secondary data sources as well as empirical and conceptual literature confirmed that the conflict between Guji and Gedio led to the displacement of 60,681 individuals from Gedio, impacting 8,261 households with an average of 7.35 people per family. Conversely, 748,499 Gujis faced displacement from their homes. In both cases, half of this displaced population comprised women, highlighting the significant gender dimension in the impact of the conflict.

The study underscores the fact that the relationship between conflict and women is intricate, with women often occupying roles as both victims and antagonists. They experience disproportionate harm including violence, displacement, and economic struggles, while also sometimes encouraging or even participating in conflict. Women develop survival strategies and play key roles in postconflict reconstruction, influenced by intersecting factors like ethnicity and class. Recognizing these complexities is crucial for promoting women's rights and achieving sustainable peace.

Highlighting the complex relationship between conflict and women, the study portrays them as both affected individuals and potential agents of change in the Guji–Gedio context. It unveils the dual role played by women, who not only experience disproportionate impacts but also face limitations in participating in postconflict peace-building endeavors. Traditional conflict resolution mechanisms, such as the Gedaa system in Guji, are analyzed within this context, emphasizing their potential contribution to peace and reconciliation.

Through a meticulous examination of gender dynamics and the roles of traditional conflict resolution, the study underscores the critical importance of recognizing and addressing the multifaceted challenges faced by women in conflict-affected regions. By advocating for their active participation in both traditional and contemporary peace-building processes, the study seeks to promote a more inclusive and equitable approach to peace-building. Ultimately, it aims to empower women as agents of positive change, supported by a combination of traditional and modern conflict resolution mechanisms.

Moreover, the study highlights the discrepancy between the significant impact endured by women and their limited involvement in postconflict peace-building efforts. This dissonance perpetuates gender disparities and hinders comprehensive reconciliation initiatives. By advocating for the active involvement of women in shaping peace-building initiatives, the study emphasizes not only a moral imperative but also a strategic necessity for the success and sustainability of peace efforts in the study area.

Furthermore, the study identifies various challenges hindering women's participation in peace-building projects, ranging from societal norms to institutional barriers. It underscores the importance of altering patriarchal structures, improving security measures, and enhancing resource accessibility to facilitate positive societal change. Recognizing the transformative potential of education, the study calls for collective action to empower women and enhance their role in shaping peace and stability following the Guji–Gedio conflict.

By prioritizing the voices and experiences of women within conflict-affected regions, particularly in the Guji–Gedio context, the study advocates for their active involvement in postconflict reconciliation efforts. Moreover, the study recognizes the importance of traditional conflict resolution mechanisms in peace-building, emphasizing that their efficacy is contingent upon the inclusion of both genders. The study highlights the critical importance of including women in these institutions to achieve inclusive and sustainable peace. The study's implications underscore the importance of targeted interventions to tackle the structural barriers identified. By addressing these obstacles, the findings suggest that it is possible to create more inclusive and sustainable peace-building processes. This approach emphasizes the need for tailored strategies that consider the unique sociopolitical dynamics at play, fostering long-term stability and social cohesion.

Thus, the study enhances understanding of the complex roles women play in conflict and peace-building, depicting them as both victims and antagonists (and as such influential change agents). It emphasizes the importance of inclusivity and empowerment in fostering sustainable peace and resilience across diverse cultural contexts, aiming for positive impacts beyond borders. The study suggests the advancement of gender equality by restructuring traditional institutions like Gonderoo to involve women, promoting their participation in media and decision-making forums, introducing gender-sensitive education reforms, and implementing resource accessibility programs for women's economic empowerment.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Awol Ali Mohammed

Notes

Author Biographies

Awol Ali Mohammed is a lecturer at the School of Governance and Development Studies, Hawassa University, Ethiopia. He holds Dual MA degrees in political science and philosophy from Bahidr-Dar University and BHU respectively. His research focuses on critical issues such as hydropolitics, geopolitics, democracy, peace and security, identity, gender, minority rights, migration, regional integration, constitutional studies, and human rights. Awol has authored 18 peer-reviewed articles and contributed to 16 conference proceedings and presentations. He has also secured six competitive research grants and served as a peer reviewer for seven academic journals. In 2023, he received the Bronze Medal as the top researcher at Hawassa University. Currently, he is an associate editor for the Ethiopian Journal of Governance and Development.

Hazel Rose Barrett is a professor of development geography and director of academic affairs at the Centre for Peace and Security at Coventry University in the United Kingdom. She has a BA (Hons) in geography with African and Asian Studies (1976) from the University of Sussex; an MA (1978), and a PhD in West African Studies (1984) both awarded by Birmingham University, United Kingdom. Her research focuses on issues of social justice and particularly violence against women in sub-Saharan Africa and the African diaspora in Europe. She has published widely on these topics, including FGM, child marriage, and sexual and gender-based violence.

Nigussie Afesha got his PhD from Andhra University, College of Law. He is also an associate professor at Hawassa University, School of Law. Nigussie received his LLB in 2006 from Bahir Dar University in Law and his MA from Addis Ababa University Center of Federal and Governance Studies in 2009. His research interests focus on federalism, intergovernmental relationships, constitutional law, and family law. He has also published several articles in peer-reviewed journals on intergovernmental relationships, judicial power decentralization, Ethiopian constitution, and self-determination, using Ethiopia's legal and political system and context as case studies.

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