Students With autism spectrum disorders (ASD) present unique challenges to educators trying to plan effective instructional programs. Although an impressive body of research identifying effective practices has emerged, there have been minimal attempts to integrate the findings into a curricular foundation to be adopted by school districts. This article provides a description of 6 core elements that have empirical support and should be included in any sound, comprehensive instructional program for students With ASD. These core elements are (a) individualized supports and services for students and families, (b) systematic instruction, (c) comprehensible/structured learning environments, (d) specialized curriculum content, (e) functional approach to problem behavior, and (f) family involvement. This article provides illustrations of the core elements in the form of specific instructional practices that have been demonstrated to be effective With students With ASD.
References
1.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
2.
Baird, M.M. (1999). Legal issues in autism. Proceedings of the 20th National Institute on Legal Issues of Educating Individuals with Disabilities. Alexendria, VA: LRP Publications, Conference Division.
3.
Baker, M.J., Koegel, R.L., & Koegel, L.K. (1999). Increasing the social behavior of young children with autism using their obsessive behaviors. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 23, 300—308.
4.
Bryan, L.C., & Gast, D.L. (2000). Teaching on-task and on-schedule behaviors to high-functioning children with autism via picture activity schedules. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 553—567.
5.
Buffington, D.M., Krantz, P.J., McClannahan, L.E., & Poulson, C.L. (1998). Procedures for teaching appropriate gestural communication skills to children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28, 535—545.
6.
Callahan, K., & Rademacher, J.A. (1999). Using self-management strategies to increase the on-task behavior of a student with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1, 117—122.
7.
Carr, E.G. (1977). The motivation of self-injurious behavior: A review of some hypotheses. Psychological Bulletin,84, 800— 816.
8.
Carr, E.G., Dunlap, G., Horner, R.H., Koegel, R.L., Turnbull, A.P., Sailor, W., et al. (2002). Positive behavior support: Evolution of an applied science. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions , 4, 4—16, 20.
9.
Carr, E.G., & Durand, V.M. (1985). Reducing behavior problems through functional communication training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 18, 111—126.
10.
Carr, E.G., Horner, R.H., Turnball, A.P., Marquis, J., Magito-Mclaughlin, D., McAtee, M.L., et al. (1999). Positive behavior support for people with developmental disabilities: A research synthesis. Washington, DC: American Association on Mental Retardation.
11.
Carr, E.G., Levin, L., McConnachie, G., Carlson, J.I., Kemp, D.C., & Smith, C.E. (1994). Communication-based intervention for problem behavior: A user's guide for producing positive change. Baltimore : Brookes.
12.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ( 2000). Prevalence of autism in Brick Township, New Jersey, 1998: Community Report. Atlanta, GA: Author.
13.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ( 2001). Vaccine fact sheets. Retrieved March 2002 , from: http://www.cdc.gov/od/nvp/fs_tableVII_doc2.htm
14.
Chandler, L.K., Dahlquist, C.M., Repp, A.C., & Feltz, C. (1999). The effects of team-based functional assessment on the behavior of students in classroom settings. Exceptional Children, 66, 101—122.
15.
Croen, L.A., Grether, J.K., Hoogstrate, J., & Selvin, S. (2002). The changing prevalence of autism in California . Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 32, 207—215.
16.
Dalrymple, N.J. (1995). Environmental supports to develop flexibility and independence. In K. Quill (Ed.), Teaching children with autism (pp. 243—264). New York: Delmar.
17.
Dawson, G., & Osterling, J. (1997). Early intervention in autism. In M. Guralnick (Ed.), The effectiveness of early intervention (pp. 307—326). Baltimore: Brookes.
18.
Dettmer, S., Simpson R.L., Myles, B.S., & Ganz, J.B. (2000). Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities , 15, 163— 169.
19.
Dunlap, G. (1999). Consensus, engagement, and family involvement for young children with autism. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 222— 225.
20.
Dunlap, G., & Fox , L. (2002). The challenge of autism from a large systems perspective. Unpublished manuscript , University of South Florida, Tampa.
21.
Dunlap, G., & Robbins, F.R. (1991). Current perspectives in service delivery for young children with autism. ComprehensiveMental Health Care, 1, 177—194.
22.
Durand, V.M. (1999). Functional communication training using assistive devices: Recruiting natural communities of reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 247—267.
23.
Dyches, T.T. (1998). Effects of switch training on the communication of children with autism and severe disabilities. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 13, 151—162.
24.
Earles, T.L., Carlson, J.K., & Bock, S.J. (1998). Instructional strategies to facilitate successful learning outcomes for students with autism. In R. L. Simpson & B. S. Myles (Eds.), Educating children and youth with autism: Strategies for effective practice (pp. 55—111). Austin: PRO-ED .
25.
Eikeseth, S., Smith, T., Jahr, E., & Eldevik, S. (2002). Intensive behavioral treatment at school for 4- to 7-year-old children with autism: A 1-year comparison controlled study. Behavior Modification, 26(1), 49—68.
26.
Feinberg, E., & Vacca, J. (2000). The drama and trauma of creating policies on autism: Critical issues to consider in the new millennium. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 15, 130—137.
27.
Fombonne, E. (1999). The epidemiology of autism: A review. Psychological Medicine, 29, 769—786.
28.
Frea, W.D., & Hepburn, S.L. (1999). Teaching parents of children with autism to perform functional assessments to plan interventions for extremely disruptive behaviors . Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1, 112—116, 122.
29.
Frost, L., & Bondy, A. (1994). The Picture Exchange Communication System training manual. Cherry Hill, NJ: PECS.
30.
Gena, A., & Kymissis, E. (2001). Assessing and setting goals for the attending and communicative behavior of three preschoolers with autism in inclusive kindergarten settings. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 13, 11—26.
31.
Graff, R.B., Lineman, G.T., Libby, M.E., & Ahearn, W.H. (1999). Functional analysis and treatment of screaming in a young girl with severe disabilities. Behavioral Interventions , 14, 233—239.
32.
Gray, C. (1995). Teaching children with autism to “read” social situations. In K. A. Quill (Ed.), Teaching children with autism: Strategies to enhance socialization and communication (pp. 219—241). Albany, NY: Delmar.
33.
Gresham, F.M., Beebe-Frankenberger, M.E., & MacMillan, D.L. (1999). A selective review of treatments for children with autism: Description and methodological considerations . School Psychology Review, 28, 559—575.
34.
Hagopian, L.P., Wilson, D.M., & Wilder, D.A. (2001). Assessment and treatment of problem behavior maintained by escape from attention and access to tangible items. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 229—232.
35.
Harrower, J.K., & Dunlap, G. (2001). Including children with autism in general education classrooms: A review of effective strategies. Behavior Modification , 25, 762— 784.
36.
Heckaman, K.A., Alber, S., Hooper, S., & Heward, W.L. (1998). A comparison of least-to-most prompts and progressive time delay on the disruptive behavior of students with autism. Journal of BehavioralEducation, 8, 171—201.
37.
Heflin, L.J., & Alberto, P.A. (2001). Establishing a behavioral context for learning for students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16, 93— 101.
38.
Heflin, L.J., & Simpson, R.L. (1998a). Interventions for children and youth with autism: Prudent choices in a world of exaggerated claims and empty promises. Part 1: Intervention and treatment option review. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 13, 194—211.
39.
Heflin, L.J., & Simpson, R.L. (1998b). Interventions for children and youth with autism: Prudent choices in a world of exaggerated claims and empty promises. Part II: Legal/policy analysis and recommendations for selecting interventions and treatments. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities , 13, 212—220.
40.
Horner, R.H., & Carr, E.G. (1997). Behavioral support for students with severe disabilities: Functional assessment and comprehensive intervention. The Journal of Special Education, 31, 84—104.
41.
Horner, R.H., Dunlap, G., Koegel, R.L., Carr, E.G., Sailor, W., Anderson, J., et al. (1990). Toward a technology of “nonaversive” behavioral support. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15, 125—132.
42.
Hurth, J., Shaw, E., Izeman, S.G., Whaley, K., & Rogers, S.J. (1999). Areas of agreement about effective practices among programs serving young children with autism spectrum disorders. Infants and Young Children, 12(2), 17—26.
43.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997, 20 U.S.C. § 1401 (26).
44.
Iwata, B.A., Dorsey, M.F., Slifer, K.J., Bauman, K.E., & Richman, G.S. (1982). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2(1), 3—20.
45.
Jahr, E. (2001). Teaching children with autism to answer novel wh-questions by utilizing a multiple exemplar strategy. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 22, 407—423.
46.
Kamps, D.M., Leonard, B.R., Vernon, S., Dugan, E.P., & Delquadri, J.C. (1992). Teaching social skills to students with autism to increase peer interactions in an integrated first-grade classroom. Journal of Applied Behavior Analyis,25, 281—288.
47.
Kamps, D., Royer, J., Dugan, E., Kravits, T., Gonzalez-Lopez, A., Garcia, J., et al. (2002). Peer training to facilitate social interactions for elementary students with autism and their peers. Exceptional Children, 68, 173—187.
48.
Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217— 250.
49.
Koegel, L.K., Camarata, S.M., Valdez-Menchaca, M., & Koegel, R.L. (1998). Setting generalization of question-asking by children with autism. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 102, 346—357.
50.
Koegel, L.K., Harrower, J., & Koegel, R.L. (1999). Support for children with developmental disabilities participating in full-inclusion classrooms through self-management. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1, 26—34.
Koegel, R.L., Bimbela, A., & Schreibman, L. (1996). Collateral effects of parent training on family interactions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 347—359.
Koegel, R.L., Koegel, L.K., & Carter, C.M. (1999). Pivotal teaching interactions for children with autism. School Psychology Review, 28, 576—594.
55.
Koegel, R.L., & Mentis, M. (1985). Motivation in childhood autism: Can they or won't they?The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 26, 185—191.
56.
Kuttler, S., Myles, B.S., & Carlson, J.K. (1998). The use of social stories to reduce precursors to tantrum behavior in a student with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 13, 176—182.
57.
Laushey, K.M., & Heflin, L.J. (2000). Enhancing social skills of kindergarten children with autism through the training of multiple peers as tutors. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 183—193.
58.
Logan, K.R., Bakeman, R., & Keefe, E.G. (1997). Effects of instructional variables of engaged behavior of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptional Children, 63, 481—497.
59.
Lorimer, P.A., Simpson, R.L., Myles, R.L., & Ganz, J.B. (2002). The use of social stories as a preventative behavioral intervention in a home setting with a child with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4, 53—60.
60.
Lotter, V. (1996). Epidemiology of autistic conditions in young children. 1: Prevalence. Social Psychiatry1, 124—137.
61.
MacDuff, G.S., Krantz, P.J., & McClannahan, L.E. (1993). Teaching children with autism to use photographic activity schedules: Maintenance and generalization of complex response chains. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 26, 89—97.
62.
Mancina, C., Tankersley, M., Kamps, D., Kravits, T., & Parrett, J. (2000). Brief report: Reduction of inappropriate vocalizations for a child with autism using a self-management treatment program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 599—606.
McGee, G.G., Krantz, P.J., & McClannahan, L.E. (1985). The facilitative effects of incidental teaching on preposition use by autistic children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 17—31.
65.
Morrison, L., Kamps, D., Garcia, J., & Parker, D. (2001). Peer mediation and monitoring strategies to improve initiations and social skills for students with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 3, 237—250.
66.
Morse, T.E., & Schuster, J.W. (2000). Teaching elementary students with moderate intellectual disabilities: How to shop for groceries. Exceptional Children, 66, 273— 288.
67.
Mueller, M.M., Wilczynski, S.M., & Moore, J.W. (2001). Antecedent manipulations in a tangible condition: Effects on stimulus preference on aggression. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 237—240.
68.
National Research Council. (2001). Educating children with autism. Committee on Educational Interventions for Children with Autism. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Autism. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
69.
Nordin, V., & Gillberg, C. (1996). Autism spectrum disorders in children with physical or mental disability or both. 1: Clinical and epidemiological aspects. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 38, 297— 313.
70.
Norris, C., & Dattilo, J. (1999). Evaluating effects of a social story intervention on a young girl with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 14, 180—186.
71.
Olley, J.G. (1999). Curriculum for students with autism. School Psychology Review, 28, 595—606.
72.
Olley, J.G., & Reeve, C.E. (1997). Issues of curriculum and classroom structure. In D. J. Cohen & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (2nd ed., pp. 484—508). New York: Wiley.
73.
Olley, J.G., & Rosenthal, S.L. (1985). Current issues in school services for students with autism. School Psychology Review , 14, 166—170.
74.
O'Neill, R.E., & Sweetland-Baker, M. (2001). Brief report: An assessment of stimulus generalization and contingency effects in functional communication training with two students with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 235— 240.
75.
Patel, M.R., Carr, J.E., Kim, C., Robles, A., & Eastridge, D. (2000). Functional analysis of aberrant behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement: Assessments of specific sensory reinforcers. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 21, 393—407.
76.
Pelios, L.V., & Lurd, S.K. (2001). A selective review of issues on classification, causation, and early intensive behavioral intervention for autism. Behavior Modification, 25, 678—697.
77.
Pierce, K.L., & Schreibman, L. (1994). Teaching daily living skills to children with autism in unsupervised settings through pictorial self-management . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 411—481.
78.
Pierce, K.L., & Schreibman, L. (1997). Multiple peer use of pivotal response training to increase social behaviors of classmates with autism: Results from trained and untrained peers. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 157—160.
79.
Powers, M.D. (1992). Early intervention for children with autism. In D. E. Berkell (Ed.), Autism: Identification, education and treatment (225—252). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
80.
Prizant, B., & Rubin, E. (1999). Contemporary issues in interventions for autism spectrum disorders: A commentary. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 199—208.
81.
Rogers, S.J. (1999). Intervention for young children with autism: From research to practice. Infants and Young Children, 12(2), 1—16.
82.
Sarokoff, R.A., Taylor, B.A., & Poulson, C.L. (2001). Teaching children with autism to engage in conversational exchanges: Script fading with embedded textual stimuli. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 81—84.
83.
Schepis, M.M., Reid, D.H., Behrmann, M.M., & Sutton, K.A. (1998). Increasing communicative interactions of young children with autism using a voice output communication aid and naturalistic teaching. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31, 561—578.
84.
Scherer, M., Pierce, K.L., Paredes, S., Kisacky, K.L., Ingersoll, B., & Schreibman, L. (2001). Enhancing conversation skills in children with autism via video technology: Which is better, “self ” or “other” as a model?Behavior Modification, 25(1), 140— 158.
85.
Schreibman, L., Whalen, C., & Stahmer, A.C. (2000). The use of video priming to reduce disruptive transition behavior in children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 2, 3—11.
86.
Schwartz, I.S., Garfinkle, A.N., & Bauer, J. (1998). The Picture Exchange Communication System: Communicative outcomes for young children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 18, 144—159.
87.
Simpson, R.L. (2001). ABA and students with autism spectrum disorders: Issues and considerations for effective practice. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16, 68—71.
88.
Simpson, R.L., & Myles, B.S. (1998). Understanding and responding to the needs of students with autism. In R. L. Simpson & B. S. Myles (Eds.), Educating children and youth with autism: Strategies for effective practice (pp. 1—23). Austin: PRO-ED.
89.
Stahmer, A.C., & Schreibman, L. (1992). Teaching children with autism appropriate play in unsupervised environments using a self-management treatment package. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 447— 459.
90.
Thiemann, K.S., & Goldstein, H. (2001). Social stories, written text cues, and video feedback: Effects on social communication of children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 425—446.
91.
Volmer, L. (1997). Best practices in working with students with autism . In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology (pp. 1031—1038). Washington, DC: The National Association of School Psychologists.
92.
Webb, E.V.J., Lobo, S., Hervas, A., Scour-field, J., & Fraser, W.I. (1997). The changing prevalence of autistic disorder in a Welsh health district. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 39, 150—152.
93.
Westling, D.L., & Fox, L. (2000). Teaching students with severe disabilities (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
94.
Wolfberg, P.J. (1995). Supporting children with autism in play groups with typical peers: Description of a model and related research. International Play Journal, 3(1), 38—51.
95.
Wolfberg, P.J., & Schuler, A.L. (1993). Fostering peer interaction, imaginative play, & spontaneous language in children with autism. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 15(1), 41—52.
96.
Yell, M.L., & Drasgow, E. (2000). Litigating a free appropriate public education: The Lovaas hearings and cases. The Journal of Special Education , 33, 205—214.
97.
Yell, M.L., & Shriner, J.G. (1997). Inclusive education: Legal and policy implications . Preventing School Failure, 40, 101—108.
98.
Zercher, C., Hunt, P., Schuler, A., & Webster, J. (2001). Increasing joint attention, play and language through peer supported play. Autism, 5, 374—398.
