Perceived Stress and Coping Strategies in Dancesport

Abstract

Introduction: Ballroom dancing, particularly in its competitive form of dancesport, has been recognized for its beneficial effects on physical health and psychological well-being. In recent years, research attention has also shifted toward examining its associations with psychological constructs such as stress, anxiety, and coping. Study Design: The present cross-sectional comparative study aimed to compare sport dancers and non-dancers in the level of perceived stress and the coping strategies. Additionally, the study explored the relative contribution of specific coping strategies to perceived stress while controlling for sex, age, and dance status. Methods: The sample consisted of 119 participants aged 18 to 31, of whom 61 were competitive sport dancers. Research data collection was conducted using a form containing a demographic section focusing on dancesport, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) and the Brief COPE questionnaire. The results of the research do not indicate significant differences in levels of perceived stress; non-dancers, male and female sport dancers perceive stress at similar levels. Regarding coping, sport dancers also less frequently choose a problem-solving coping compared to non-dancers (P = .007). Defensive strategies were the most significant predictor of perceived stress of the sport dancers (P < .001). Conclusion: The research findings can be applied in sport and dance psychology, dance coach education, promoting the development of constructive coping in sport dancers via mental contrasting, advanced competition practice and as well as the overall training program in a dynamic dance environment.

Keywords

dance dancesport perceived stress coping coping strategies

Key Points

Current dancesport psychology research emphasizes stress, anxiety, and coping, yet empirical studies addressing these psychological factors remain scarce.

This study aimed to compare sport dancers and non-dancers in perceived stress and coping, assessing specific strategy contributions while controlling for sex, age, and dancesport.

Competitive dancers used problem-solving strategies less frequently; interventions such as the nine-step model, mental contrasting, and controlled exposure can strengthen adaptive stress management skills.

Introduction

The world of elite sport, which places high demands on athletes, can generally be considered very stressful. Dancesport (DS) is no exception, and in recent years it has been attracting increasing interest from researchers in various scientific disciplines. While earlier studies in DS concentrated mainly on competitive performance,¹ injuries,² and techniques,^3,4 considerably less attention has been devoted to psychological aspects such as athletes’ emotional states, anxiety, perceived stress, and stress management.

Generally, the World DanceSport Federation (WDSF) defines dance as rhythmic movements and gestures performed in pairs, characterized by a variety of movements and alternating musical rhythms with sudden accelerations and momentary pauses.^3,5 Specifically, DS is a competitive form of Standard and Latin American ballroom dancing that combines athletic skill, artistic expression, and technical precision within defined musical and rhythmic structures.^6
-8 There are 10 ballroom dances divided into Standard dances (waltz, tango, viennese waltz, slowfox, quickstep) and Latin-American dances (samba, cha-cha, rumba, paso-doble, jive).^6
-9 Competitive dance involves demanding physical requirements similar to other elite sports, as demonstrated by studies of blood lactate levels and oxygen consumption in dancers.^10,11 Typical dance competitions can last up to 12 hours, with dance couples performing for 30 to 60 minutes in various ballroom dance categories, depending on the number of participants. Each dance lasts a minimum of 1 minute and 30 seconds, which is a duration of anaerobic physical activity during which sport dancers function on oxygen debt.¹¹ Research shows that elite DS athletes achieve high maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) and have significant post-competition blood lactate levels.¹² That reinforces its classification as an elite sport. In addition, research highlights the positive psychological effects of DS, suggesting that it serves as a protective factor against cognitive decline and increases life satisfaction, well-being, and self-esteem.^13,14

Current research starts to focused on the relationship between perceived stress and dancers of the DS, specifically their stress levels and coping mechanisms.^15
-19 According to Hans Selye, stress arises when the body’s homeostatic mechanisms are insufficient to meet external demands.¹⁰ DS inherently places high psychological demands on athletes due to its physical intensity and social significance, often resulting in chronic stress associated with elevated allostatic load.¹⁶ Moreover, according to the Yerkes-Dodson law, a moderate and manageable level of stress can enhance motivation and performance; however, excessive perceived stress becomes detrimental and counterproductive.⁶

The stressors in DS are typically categorized as controllable or uncontrollable, with significant stressors including competition judges, evaluation systems, partner dynamics, and social assessments of performance.^16,20 Moreover, stress can arise from multiple sources:^6,20

(i) Physical demands: Rigorous training, rehearsals, and performances put physical strain on the body.

(ii) Performance pressure: The need to perform perfectly in front of an audience or judges can lead to performance anxiety.

(iii) Injury: The risk of injury increases stress levels due to potential disruption to training and career progression.

(iv) Aesthetic pressures: Dance forms such as ballet and DS require dancers to conform to idealized body types and aesthetic standards.

Other stressors present in DS include the organizational stressors encountered in sport settings in which sport dancers train and where dance competitions are held.^7,8,21 Judges at dance competitions are also a significant stressor because they are responsible for quickly and correctly recognizing the quality of technical and aesthetic elements of the dancers’ performance based on their own subjective judgment.^8,22 In other words, there is still a significant subjective nature of the judging partner skills and presentation of the choreography. It is then perceived as a specific stressful element by competitive dance couples along with other factors depending on their environment (eg, competitive settings, recreational dancing) and individual factors (eg, personality traits, support systems).

Additionally, male dancers experience higher stress levels than non-dancers, mainly due to the demands of leading their female partners in a dynamic environment.^7,22,23 Gender imbalances often limit female dancers’ competitive opportunities due to partner shortages, and although passion increases engagement in DS for both sexes, its effect is weaker for women, who may also experience reduced autonomy and belonging.^7,24 Finally, female dancers face higher physical risks, with a greater incidence of injuries compared to male dancers.²² This may be the cause of perceived stress of female dancers.

Coping, as defined by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman, refers to the cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage life demands that exceed an individual’s resources.²⁵ The most commonly used coping strategies in the realm of DS follow Lazarus and Folkman’s model. There belong problem-solving coping, emotion-focused coping, and defensive strategies. Other specific dance related techniques include centered breathing, which involves deep chest breathing and forceful exhalation, and smiling to reduce muscle tension based on the facial feedback hypothesis.^19,26 Simulated dance competition (competition practice) is another technique focused on preparing sport dancers psychologically by mimicking the competitive atmosphere, although it may not induce significant stress responses due to its less serious nature.^7,8,16,27 In addition, research suggests that male sport dancers exhibit higher goal orientation and determination, potentially influencing their ability to cope with stress compared to female sport dancers.¹⁷

The aim of the research was to examine potential differences between sport dancers and non-dancers in the levels of perceived stress and coping strategies. Additionally, we aimed to examine the relative contribution of specific coping strategies on the perceived stress of the sport dancers while controlling for sex, age, and DS.

Based on the research findings, the following research questions and hypotheses were established:

Q1: Do sport dancers differ from non-dancers in their level of perceived stress and coping strategies?

H1a: Sport dancers perceive stress at a higher level compared to non-dancers.^16,20,22

H1b: Sport dancers differ in their use of the coping strategies compared to non-dancers.^17,19,20,28

Q2: Do male sport dancers differ from female sport dancers in their level of perceived stress and coping strategies?

H2a: Male sport dancers perceive stress at a higher level compared to female sport dancers.^18,23

H2b: Male sport dancers differ in their use of the coping strategies compared to female sport dancers.¹⁷

Methodology

Sample

A total of 119 participants aged between 18 and 31 years old took part in the study, including 37 males (31.09%) (Mean age = 27.30) and 82 females (68.91%) (Mean age = 24.55). Sixty-one participants (51.26%), comprising 23 males (37.70%) (M = 24.70) and 38 females (62.30%) (M = 24.30), were involved in DS. The research sample, obtained by using a convenience sampling approach, consisted of dancers registered in the Slovak DanceSport Federation (N = 988). The inclusion criterion for dancers was official registration in the Slovak DanceSport Federation, regardless of performance level. All surveys distributed to dancers were returned, with the exception of two excluded questionnaires due to incomplete responses. The control group included individuals without any history of competitive dancing. Since no a priori sample size calculation was performed, the current data should be regarded as reference data rather than a representative sample of the Slovak dance sport population. The control group (non-dancers) comprised university students (both humanities and natural sciences), and recent graduates. All control participants were residents of Košice, representing a mix of educational backgrounds intended to reflect the local young adult population.

Methods

The research data on non-dancers were collected online, while the data from sport dancers was gathered directly at three dance clubs: SHOW DS Košice, TC Meteor Košice, and the University Dance Centre. Prior to participation, respondents provided informed consent in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR),²⁹ which governs the processing of personal data within the European Union.

The demographic section of the form focused on identifying variables such as biological sex, age as well as the duration of participants’ competitive dancing experience.

The level of perceived stress was measured using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10). It assesses the extent to which an individual perceived his or her own life in the past month as unpredictable or uncontrollable, and therefore stressful.³⁰ The PSS-10 consists of 10 items that ascertained how often the individual felt or thought in a certain way. It was therefore answered using a frequency scale of 0 (never), 1 (almost never), 2 (sometimes), 3 (quite often) and 4 (very often) (min. total score = 0, max. total score = 40). The reliability of the PSS-10 in the present sample, as estimated by McDonald’s omega, was .86, indicating good internal consistency.

The coping strategies, were measured by the Brief COPE questionnaire. It consisted of 28 items representing particular coping strategies.³¹ In general, the Brief COPE items refer to three basic coping strategies namely problem-focused coping (active coping, planning, positive reframing, acceptance and both religiosity and spirituality), emotion-focused coping (use of emotional support, use of instrumental social support, venting emotions, use of drugs and use of humor) and defensive strategies (self-distraction, denial, disengaged behavior, and self-blame). Research participants were asked to consider what they usually do when they are under severe stress and then to rate their answers using a scale from 1 to 6, with 6 (being completely fitting), 5 (being very fitting), 4 (being somewhat fitting), 3 (being rather unfitting), 2 (being very unfitting) and 1 (being completely unfitting) (min. total score = 28, max. total score = 168). The internal consistency of the Brief COPE subscales was acceptable, with Cronbach’s α = .689 for problem-solving coping, α = .699 for emotion-focused coping, and α = .733 for defensive coping. The overall reliability of the Brief COPE inventory was satisfactory (Cronbach’s α = .766). For the purposes of the research, the final scores of the three main coping strategies were taken into account.

Procedure

The participants gave their consent to be included in the research by signing the informed consent form. The online form was distributed via social networks and email correspondence on the campus of the Faculty of Arts of the P.J. Safarik University in Košice from November 13, 2023 to November 30, 2023. The data collection from the sport dancers was performed before training sessions in the early evening in our presence. Equal research conditions and our control over the research data collection process were ensured.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted using Jamovi 2.4.11. Group differences were evaluated with parametric tests (MANOVA) and Welch’s ANOVA, the latter used when the assumption of homogeneity of variances was not met. To explore relationships between coping strategies and perceived stress, hierarchical regression was employed. Assumption checks included Levene’s test for homogeneity of variances (for ANOVA) and Box’s test for homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices (for MANOVA). Post hoc analyses were performed with Tukey’s HSD test following significant omnibus results. Effect sizes were measured with partial eta squared.

Results

Descriptive statistics of the entire research sample, including age, levels of perceived stress, and use of coping strategies, are provided. Female dancers reported between 0.5 and 8 years of competitive dancing, whereas male dancers reported between 0.5 and 10 years of experience (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Descriptive Analyses of Research Sample.

Measured variable	Sex	Dancesport	N	Mean (SD)
Age	Female	No	44	24.86 (7.74)
	Female	Yes	38	24.30 (9.93)
	Male	No	14	29.60 (11.65)
	Male	Yes	23	24.70 (11.85)
Competitive dancing (years)	Female	No	44	—
	Female	Yes	38	3.71 (4.04)
	Male	No	14	—
	Male	Yes	23	4.74 (4.14)
Perceived stress	Female	No	44	20.50 (6.51)
	Female	Yes	38	19.90 (5.46)
	Male	No	14	16.50 (4.54)
	Male	Yes	23	17.00 (10.66)
Problem-solving coping	Female	No	44	43.60 (6.09)
	Female	Yes	38	39.90 (7.08)
	Male	No	14	42.80 (8.59)
	Male	Yes	23	38.70 (7.33)
Emotion-focused coping	Female	No	44	34.30 (6.37)
	Female	Yes	38	34.70 (6.67)
	Male	No	14	33.40 (8.01)
	Male	Yes	23	30.80 (6.66)
Defensive coping	Female	No	44	23.10 (6.44)
	Female	Yes	38	26.40 (7.47)
	Male	No	14	20.40 (5.49)
	Male	Yes	23	21.70 (6.91)

Differences in Level of Perceived Stress

In order to determine the differences between the male and female sport dancers and non-dancers in their levels of perceived stress, a Welch’s ANOVA was conducted (test of homogeneity: F(3, 115) = 5.40, P = .002). Welch’s ANOVA showed no statistically significant differences between males and females (F(1, 51.50) = 3.53, P = .066; partial η² = .023) as well as sport dancers and non-dancers (F(1, 115) = 0.002, P = .958; partial η² = .000). Differences in perceived stress were small for sex (partial η² = .023) and negligible for occupation (partial η² = .000), indicating minimal variance explained by either factor.

Differences in Coping Strategies

A two-way MANOVA was conducted in order to examine differences in the use of coping strategies. The results of the two-way MANOVA (coping strategies reasonably correlated, box test: M(18, 12 549.789) = 16.330, P = .647) indicated differences in the use of coping strategies between sport dancers and non-dancers F(3, 113) = 4.972, P = .003; Wilk’s Λ = .883, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .097, indicating a medium effect size. Tests of between-group effects showed differences in coping with respect to sex and DS. Females, including sport dancers and non-dancers, ( ${\bar{x}}_{w c o p e}$ = 24.65 (SD = 7.08)) were more likely to use defensive strategies than males, including sport dancers and non-dancers, ( ${\bar{x}}_{m c o p e}$ = 21.22 (SD = 6.36)) (P = .008). Non-dancers, including females and males, ( ${\bar{x}}_{n - d c o p e}$ = 43.41 (SD = 6.71)) were more likely to use a problem-solving coping than sport dancers, including females and males, ( ${\bar{x}}_{d c o p e}$ = 39.46 (SD = 7.14)) (P = .007) (see Table 2).

Table 2.

MANOVA – Univariate Tests.

Independent variable	Dependent variable	Sum of squares	df	Mean square	F	P	$η_{p}^{2}$
Sex	Problem-solving	25.72	1	25.72	0.53	.469	.005
	Emotion-focused	146	1	146	3.25	.074	.028
	Defensive	337.16	1	337.16	7.33	.008	.060
Dancesport	Problem-solving	369.44	1	369.44	7.59	.007	.062
	Emotion-focused	27.75	1	27.75	0.619	.433	.005
	Defensive	131.34	1	131.34	2.86	.094	.024

A hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to examine the relative contribution of coping strategies while controlling for sex, age and DS on a perceived stress of the sport dancers.

In the first step, sex (female = 2, male = 1) was included as a predictor. The model significantly predicted the perceived stress (F(1, 117) = 4.70, P = .032, R² adj = .030), with sex being a significant predictor (b = 0.42, t = 2.17, P = .032) (see Table 3).

Table 3.

Predicting perceived stress.

Model	Unstandardized		Standardized
Model	b	SE	β	t	P
1
(Intercept)	17.22	1.15		14.91	< .001
Sex: (female – male)	3.02	1.39	.42	2.17	.032
2
(Intercept)	19.90	2.13		9.33	< .001
Sex: (female – male)	2.71	1.40	.40	1.94	.055
Age	−0.10	0.06	−.14	−1.49	.139
3
(Intercept)	19.72	2.40		8.22	< .001
Sex: (female – male)	2.75	1.42	.39	1.93	.06
Age	−0.09	0.07	−.13	−1.45	.15
Dancesport (yes – no)	0.22	1.31	.03	0.17	.87
4
(Intercept)	15.54	4.63		3.36	.001
Sex: (female – male)	1.41	1.35	.19	1.05	.298
Age	−0.04	0.06	−.05	−0.63	.530
Dancesport (yes – no)	−1.34	1.27	−.19	−1.05	.295
Problem-solving	−0.17	0.09	−.17	−1.87	.064
Emotion-focused	0.06	0.10	.06	0.58	.566
Defensive	0.41	0.09	.39	4.13	< .001

In the second step, age was added to the model. The model remained statistically significant (F(2, 116) = 3.49, P = .034, R² adj = .040), but no significant improvement between first and second model was detected (∆F(1, 116) = 2.22, P = .139, ∆ $R^{2}$ = .02).

In the third step, DS (no dancing = 0, dancing = 1) was added to the model. The model was neither statistically significant (F(3, 115) = 2.31, P = .080, R² adj = .032) nor did it better explain the variance in perceived stress (∆F(1, 115) = 0.03, P = .869, ∆R² = 2.25e−4).

In the final step, after adding three coping strategies (problem-solving coping, emotion-focused coping, and defensive strategies), the model regained statistical significance (F(6, 112) = 5.44, P < .001, R² adj = .184). It explained nearly 17% more variability in perceived stress compared to the previous models (∆F(3, 112) = 8.14, P < .001, ∆R² = .17). Defensive coping strategies were the only significant predictor (b = 0.39, t = 4.13, P < .001), highlighting their role in predicting perceived stress (see Table 3).

Discussion

The present study aimed to compare perceived stress levels and coping strategies between sport dancers and non-dancers.

We found no support for hypothesis H1a (sport dancers perceive stress at a higher level compared to non-dancers), as the differences were not statistically significant. This contradicts the findings of the previous studies,^16,20 in which sport dancers experienced high levels of stress due to intense competitive pressure. A possible explanation for this discrepancy may stem from methodological differences, such as the adoption of a revised scoring system in contemporary dancesport competitions,²² which reduces subjective judging and associated stress. Furthermore, lower levels of perceived stress may facilitate the internalization of DS into the dancers’ own identity, which may further manifest itself in increased passion, engagement, and performance in DS.⁷

Hypothesis H1b, which proposed differences in coping strategies between groups, was partially supported. Specifically, sport dancers were found to use problem-solving coping strategies less frequently than non-dancers. This contradicts previous research,^17,19,20 which emphasized goal orientation, persistence, and adaptive coping strategies among sport dancers rather than defensive or emotional coping. However, a closer examination of Tremayne and Ballinger’s¹⁹ review suggests that their findings were based on simulated dance competitions, which may not fully reflect real competition stress. It is possible that while sport dancers employ problem-solving coping strategies during training, they may resort to less constructive coping mechanisms in actual competitive situations.

Regarding hypothesis H2a (male sport dancers perceive stress at a higher level than female sport dancers), we found no significant difference between genders. This aligns with Berndt et al¹⁶ but partially contradicts Pakulanona and Poomsalood,²³ who reported higher perceived stress levels among male sport dancers, potentially due to the male dancer’s leadership role in a dance partnership. However, gender did not emerge as a significant predictor of stress in our study. Similarly, hypothesis H2b (male and female sport dancers differ in their use of coping strategies) was not supported. This contradicts the Spanish study,¹⁷ which suggested that problem-solving coping strategies were influenced not only by gender but also by the type of dance club (private vs public). Notably, male dancers from small private clubs exhibited the highest scores in goal-directedness and commitment.

These discrepancies may stem from our sample’s gender imbalance (68.91% female) and inclusion of large, structured dance clubs (eg, SHOW DS Košice). Standardized training protocols in such clubs could homogenize coping approaches across genders, whereas smaller clubs – as noted by De Las Heras Fernández et al¹⁷ – might amplify gender differences through individualized coaching that reinforces role-specific expectations. Thus, contextual factors like organizational size and training uniformity likely mitigated gender-related pressures in our study, underscoring the importance of environmental influences in shaping stress and coping dynamics.

Our findings on coping align with those on perceived stress, suggesting that sport dancers may use DS as a global coping strategy,²⁸ As a result, they are less likely to adopt problem-solving coping and may rely on easier but less effective defensive strategies in high-stress situations, which emerged as the strongest predictor of perceived stress.

In terms of practical implications, these results highlight the need for specific support for competitive dancers in developing problem-solving coping strategies. One option is to use the nine-step connection model,²⁷ which systematically guides the athlete from the end of one dance to the beginning of the next – from receiving applause, through physical and mental preparation, to reconnecting with the partner and audience.⁶ This approach not only helps to focus on performance, but also creates space for the implementation of the mental contrasting method, where the dancer imagines the desired state and at the same time reflects on the obstacles that must be overcome.^8,32 This process promotes constructive problem-solving coping rather than emotional or defensive strategies. However, it remains debatable to what extent these methods can be adapted to different levels of dancers or training conditions. A practical solution seems to be gradually exposing dancers to unexpected stimuli – such as changes on the dance floor or dynamic obstacles in the space – which can prepare them for stressful situations during competition in a more constructive way without using defensive strategies and emotional coping.

Some limitations include collecting online data from the control group, possible sample bias depending on dance clubs levels, unequal group sizes, and the absence of precise age delineation, even though participants are in emerging adulthood. Additionally, although the dancer sample should be regarded as a reference rather than a representative group, the control group differed in composition, which may limit comparability. The use of a convenience sampling approach without an a priori power analysis further limits the generalizability of the findings. Potential confounders such as physical activity, motivation, and socioeconomic background were not matched and may have influenced outcomes. A strength of this study was the collaboration with dance clubs, which ensured controlled research conditions and a balanced sample in terms of DS categories. In addition, the research contributed to current research awareness within the Slovak DanceSport Federation.

Future research should examine age segmentation, socioeconomic status, and environmental stressors that affect sport dancers beyond competition-related stress. Understanding these factors could clarify whether dancers experience greater overall stressors, making competitions appear less intimidating. Additionally, dancing may act as a stress-reducing activity.

Practical and Clinical Applications and Implications

Since competitive dancers did not show higher levels of stress than non-dancers but relied less on problem-solving coping strategies, coaches and sports psychologists should focus on strengthening adaptive stress management skills. Interventions such as the nine-step connection model, mental contrasting, and controlled exposure to unexpected stimuli can be more frequently integrated into training sessions. These approaches may motivate dancers to replace the frequent use of defensive strategies in stressful situations with more constructive ways of coping with competition-specific stressors.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the research results do not show significant differences in perceived stress levels; both male and female sport dancers experience stress similarly to non-dancers. When it comes to coping, sport dancers also select problem-solving strategies less frequently than non-dancers. Defensive strategies were the most significant predictor of perceived stress among sport dancers. Overall, this presents an opportunity for improvement in the mental preparation of dance couples, as well as the overall training program.

Footnotes

Author Note

All authors have contributed significantly to the work and approved the final manuscript, which is being submitted. This paper has not been, nor will be, published in whole or in part by any other journal.

ORCID iD

Samuel Vladimir Sedlak

Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval was not required for this study, as permission for data collection was formally granted by the Slovak Dance Sport Federation as well as by the participating dance clubs. These authorizations provided sufficient institutional approval in accordance with the relevant regulations. Furthermore, the study was conducted in line with established ethical principles, ensuring voluntary participation, informed consent, and the protection of participant anonymity and confidentiality.

Consent to Participate

This study was conducted in compliance with the ethical standards set by the European Parliament and of the Council (EU) No. 2016/679 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC. Written informed consent was also provided to all research participants.

Author Contributions

Author 1: Conceptualization, investigation, statistical analysis, resources, writing-original draft. Author 2: Methodology, statistical analysis.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

In accordance with the agreements established with the collaborating dance clubs, the research data are not permitted to be disclosed or shared with third parties. This restriction is intended to safeguard participant confidentiality and to adhere to the institutional conditions under which the data collection was conducted.

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