A Qualitative Exploration of Electronic Image Sharing Among Young People: Navigating the Issues of Conformity,Trust,Intention,and Reputation

Method

A qualitative approach was used in this study, guided by the philosophical assumption of constructionism. It aimed to illuminate the diverse and multifaceted beliefs about health that are firmly embedded within the unique context of individuals’ everyday lives (Agar, 2013; Taylor & Francis, 2013). According to the definition of constructionism (Crotty, 1998), reality is not discovered but rather is constructed from an interaction between conscious intentionality and the human world. That individuals create their own meaning, unique to the different social worlds they inhabit, is a central tenet of constructionism (Crotty, 1998). Focus groups were utilized to explore the socially constructed dimensions of image sharing and provide a collectively constructed articulation of image sharing (Kamberelis, 2011). Previous research demonstrates focus groups are a valuable method to gain insight into complex issues among adolescent populations (e.g., Hyde, Howlett, Brady, & Drennan, 2005).

Results

Both boys and girls initially responded to the vignettes in a way that was generally disapproving of the sharing of inappropriate images and demonstrated sound understanding of how they felt they should respond in such situations. For instance,

Everything depends on what type of images. It’s like pretty obvious what you should send to somebody and what you shouldn’t. (FG1, GG)

If you wouldn’t put up posters all over the school, don’t put them on the Internet. (FG8, BB)

Even if it’s fun you have got to make sure you really think it through. You have got to be sure you remember there are consequences. (FG3, GG)

However, as the focus group discussions evolved, participants’ responses revealed the multilayered nature of electronic image sharing. Identification of the major themes helped articulate the nuances of how young people manage relationships in the online environment, including how they navigate issues of conformity, trust, intention, and reputation (Table 1).

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Table 1.

Main Themes and Example Quotes.

Theme	Gender	Example quotes
Conformity	All-boys	There could be pressure from others to sending to some other people and forced into doing something they don’t want to do. (FG5)
	All-boys	If you have got [a] choice, like don’t send anything at all, but if you have got no choice . . . (FG6)
	All-boys	Now and then there is peer pressure, but people should learn to ignore it. (FG8)
	All-girls	If it’s about making fun of a person, don’t just send it because your friend is sending it. (FG3)
	All-girls	Sometimes you can have a photo and people say—Can I see it. I want to see it. And then you are like—No. And then they say—Why won’t you do it. And then it’s like pressure to do it, and then it’s whatever, it’s not the right thing. (FG4)
	All-girls	It’s like the pressure of it, like if I don’t send this, maybe they will stop talking to me. (FG4)
Trust	All-boys	Make sure you know who you are sending it to, like that you can trust them. (FG6)
	All-boys	You could trust someone, like 100%, [but] you never know what is going to happen. If someone keeps it for over a year or something, [it is] so easy to send that out. (FG6)
	All-girls	If you send a picture with like a group of girls . . . I can pretty well trust that [it] is not going to go anywhere. As if you send it to boys and girls, there is a very high chance that will be sent around in that school. (FG3)
	All-girls	Although you are sending it to a group of friends, which say are all girls, most likely the image will get to the guys, who will tell their guy friends, who will then tell the girl. (FG3)
	Mixed	You don’t have the level of trust with a stranger that you do with a friend that they wouldn’t send it to anyone else. (FG10)
Intention	All-boys	If it’s funny in a way that everyone can laugh about it, and if it’s about someone else so they can take the joke . . . as long as it’s not making fun, or disadvantaging anyone else, then it should be fine. (FG6)
	All-girls	If it’s a photo of the two of them and Chris doesn’t want it to be on Facebook or something . . . don’t put it on Facebook because . . . they don’t want it there. It could be an innocent photo, but they may not want it there. (FG2)
	All-girls	If you have a photo like, of you in a nice dress or whatever, and you want people to say “you look really pretty,” [but] then there are some bits that should not be shown and . . . that attracts the wrong kind of attention that you don’t want. (FG3)
	Mixed	You don’t know the motive behind it. You don’t know if it was just like out of a pure joke and funny, or if somebody is actually trying to hurt someone. So, it’s kind of hard to . . . know if it’s a joke or not. (FG9)
	Mixed	If you put out a positive picture of something you have done, or yourself, and then people can turn it into a negative way and they will find something wrong about it and then mock you. (FG10)
Reputation	All-boys	If you are sharing it in a big group . . . it could spread around the school and could come back and hurt you. (FG7)
	All-girls	There is no way of knowing where it is going to go . . . he can suddenly find everyone talking about this photo. (FG2)
	All-girls	If you are sending it out there, you are asking people to judge you. (FG3)
	All-girls	The person who did send [nude images] now has a reputation and no-one thinks of them positively, it’s kind of a negative impact. But then again if they don’t send the pictures, it’s also bit of a negative impact, because—Well, why won’t she, or why won’t you. (FG4)
	Mixed	If someone saw an image like that of you, they would immediately think of you in a different way . . . it changes your whole image. (FG10)

Discussion

In support of previous research, these focus-group findings revealed the multifaceted nature of young people’s image-sharing attitudes and behaviors and demonstrated an understanding of core concerns associated with image sharing. While participants generally hold strong beliefs about the potential harms associated with image sharing and are cognizant of recommended strategies to minimize harm, they can encounter considerable complexity when implementing these well-intentioned actions in the context of peer dynamics and rewards. As proposed by the theory of planned behavior, the perceived social pressure surrounding risky image sharing is fundamental and can be a stronger predictor of adolescents’ intentions to engage in sexting than their individual attitudes toward sexting (Walrave et al., 2014).

The identified themes of conformity, trust, intention, and reputation were salient in the focus group discussions. As discussed by participants, image sharing may be a way of conforming to the group and complying with social pressure. Likewise, previous research has found that young people are more likely to engage in sexting when they believe sexting occurs frequently among their peers (Walrave et al., 2014), and can be subjected to significant social pressure to conform with this behavior (e.g., Burkett, 2015). Participants discussed how establishing trust when sharing images was paramount, and this concern among girls, in particular, is consistent with previous research (Burkett, 2015). This was also connected to intention; participants were keenly aware of how image sharing could be underpinned by a harmful motive and how images could be misinterpreted in ways that were contrary to the original sender’s intention. Likewise, previous research has found that young people are more inclined to engage in sexting when they perceive they can trust the person with whom they are sharing images to not to show the images or message to others (Walrave et al., 2014).

As found in previous research on young people’s perceptions of sexting (Lippman & Campbell, 2014), participants were acutely aware of the ongoing consequences of their risky image sharing on their peer relationships, indicating that when risky behavior takes place, it is motivated by a perception that the potential rewards outweigh the potential risks. Image sharing was seen as a means of enabling reputation, aligning with previous research addressing sexting among young adults (Burkett, 2015). However, concerns about image sharing damaging their reputation were also expressed, particularly among the all-girl focus groups. This finding is also in line with previous research by Burkett (2015). Likewise, Lippman and Campbell (2014) found that girls often experience social pressure to engage in sexting and are subject to harsh judgements whether they engage in this form of image sharing or not.

Overall, the findings from the current study highlight the considerable complexities young people face and the many issues they attempt to navigate when making decisions about image sharing. The identified themes help explicate the nuances of how young people’s image-sharing behaviors are shaped by their culture and the social worlds they inhabit. Participants recognized the benefits of conforming to social norms and complying with others’ expectations but expressed awareness of the importance of trusting those with whom the image would be shared. There was also an underlying recognition that images could be misinterpreted, and that some peers may have harmful intentions regarding image sharing. This unpredictability means that young people may have limited control over the outcome of their image-sharing behaviors. The way in which these issues of conforming, trust, and intention are navigated by young people then has the potential to affect their online behavior, reputation, and well-being in both positive and negative ways. Harnessing young people’s awareness of the potential risks of image sharing and helping them find ways to achieve social goals and resolve social pressures without engaging in risky behavior, could help prevent risky image sharing and associated harms.

The findings should be considered in the context of the study limitations. The participant sample consisted of young people chosen specifically for their potential leadership capabilities, so may not be representative of other young people their age. Additionally, due to students being drawn from nongovernment schools rather than government school sectors, focus group participants were more likely to be from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds. It is also possible the power differential between the adult focus group facilitators and the youth participants contributed to socially desirable response bias (Holstein & Gubrium, 2002). In this study, the vignettes were brief and somewhat ambiguous to allow participants to explore this sensitive topic through projection techniques. The focus group discussions were similar, regardless of what vignette was used (Vignette A or Vignette B). Additionally, it was not always clear what kind of images students were referring to in their discussion (i.e., sexting or other risky image sharing) and some nuances may have been lost.

Notwithstanding these limitations, the findings of the current study provide useful guidance for school-based action to prevent and reduce harm from young people’s image-sharing behaviors. In particular, the insights from the focus group discussions indicate that an important target for intervention is subjective norms and normative expectations held within this population. Interventions need to enable young people to develop perceptions of positive social norms and normative expectations of appropriate behavior when online, and seek to develop their moral and social reasoning skills (Bussey, Fitzpatrick, & Raman, 2015; Cappadocia, Pepler, Cummings, & Craig, 2012; Rector-Aranda & Raider-Roth, 2015). Indeed, there is a clear need to strengthen young people’s momentary decision-making skills to employ these effectively in online environments where there is less adult guidance and support (Patterson, Allan, & Cross, 2016).

Critically, this research suggests the importance of subjective norms and normative expectations surrounding image sharing, as perceived by a group of Australian young people selected to be cyber ambassadors in their schools. Cyber ambassadors in schools are a valuable resource to model, teach, and encourage positive image sharing among their fellow students (Cross et al., 2015). Selected students need to exhibit natural empathy and leadership skills; they should also have credibility within the peer group and the potential to help positively influence peer-level norms about image sharing.

Importantly, intervention strategies to promote the positive use of technology and minimize harms from risky image sharing need to be implemented in the context of a whole-school approach. This includes, for instance, proactive policies, procedures and practices around technology use; a committed school leadership team; a positive, safe, and supportive school culture; and mechanisms to develop key understandings and competencies among staff, students, and families about technology use among young people (Pearce, Cross, Monks, Waters, & Falconer, 2011).