Breaking A Communication Barrier

Abstract

Given the diverse workforce of the hospitality industry, language difficulties continue to create communication barriers for both employers and immigrant workers. As a result, these barriers have negative effects on job performance and organizational attitudes. In an effort to provide solutions, this article examines the effect of using pictures on job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment when communication barriers exist in a food industry operation context. The results of this experimental study demonstrated that the performance of workers who used pictures when producing a dish was evaluated higher on dimensions of time, quality, and accuracy than that of workers who did not use pictures. Additionally, the participants who were given pictures reported higher task satisfaction and commitment than those who were only provided an abstract recipe.

Keywords

communication barriers experimental methodology job attitudes job performance

Because of immigration and demographic shifts, the U.S. workforce continues to be one of the most diverse in the world. For example, in 2008, 24.1 million employees in the United States were foreign born (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009), and the number who spoke a language other than English at home more than doubled within the past two decades (Zeidner, 2009). Although the foodservice industry has embraced immigrant workers, evident by the fact that it is the largest employer of immigrants (Jackson, 2002), language difficulties present a communication barrier for both employers and immigrant workers in foodservice establishments (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2006; Loosemore & Lee, 2001). In fact, U.S. census data show that approximately 46% of foreign-born workers have limited English proficiency and that nearly 73% of immigrant workers with limited English proficiency speak Spanish as a first language (Capps, Fix, Passel, Ost, & Perez-Lopez, 2003; Shin & Bruno, 2003). Research also suggests that about 26% of employees in the foodservice industry speak a language other than English at home, which include but are not limited to Spanish, Chinese, and Vietnamese (Jackson, 2002; National Restaurant Association, 2006).

As such, lack of understanding due to communication barriers may lead to ineffective management of culturally diverse employees working in foodservice establishments. For instance, research has previously shown that immigrant workers believe that not speaking English is a disadvantage for career advancement (Castro, Fujishiro, & Sweitze, 2006). Immigrant workers with limited English also report receiving inadequate training because of the fact that the majority of training is conducted in English and not in their native language (O’Connor, Loomis, Runyan, dal Santo, & Schulman, 2005). Limited English proficiency among immigrant workers is also related to underreporting workplace injuries and not obtaining appropriate health care after a workplace accident (Madera & Chang, in press; Pransky et al., 2002). Research in hospitality management has also shown that language similarity between supervisor and subordinates is a complex and important issue for effective commitment among employees (Potts & Reynolds, 2010).

Little research, however, has examined methods that food industry employers can use to effectively manage employees when communication barriers exist. This is an important limitation considering the fact that the foodservice industry is the largest employer of immigrants (Jackson, 2002) and that communication barriers can negatively affect performance and work attitudes such as task satisfaction and job commitment (Chiang, Jang, Canter, & Prince, 2008; Pincus, 1986; Putti, Aryee, & Phua, 1990). One method that can be used to effectively manage limited English language skills in employees is the use of pictures (i.e., photographs; National Restaurant Association, 2000; O’Dell, 2009). Many foodservice establishments use pictures in their training manual or recipe book to aid employees in preparing a dish. However, research has not examined how pictures can be used to improve performance and work attitudes in a foodservice context when communication barriers exist. Using pictures to overcome communication barriers has an advantage over other methods, such as translated recipes and classroom English training, because (a) many frontline employees have poor literacy skills (Harris & Bonn, 2000), (b) translating recipes and directions would be required for multiple languages (e.g., Spanish, Chinese, and Vietnamese; National Restaurant Association, 2006), (c) the majority of individuals (approximately 65% of the population) are visual learners (Dankelman, Chmarra, Verdaasdonk, Stassen, & Grimbergen, 2005), and (d) traditional classroom English language training methods are costly and less popular among immigrant employees (Zeidner, 2009).

Thus, the purpose of this article is to examine the effect of using pictures on job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment when communication barriers exist in a food industry operation context. In this article, the literature that suggests that visual aids can have a positive influence on job performance and job attitudes, such as task satisfaction and job commitment, for food industry workers is reviewed. An experiment is then presented that tests the current study’s hypotheses.

Literature Review

Grounded in social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), the investment model theory suggests that employees are more highly engaged in their performance, are more satisfied with their jobs, and are more committed when an organization is perceived to invest in their employees through workplace policies and practices than employees who do not perceive investment from their organization (Farrell & Rusbult, 1981). Similarly, organizational support theory (Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, & Rhoades, 2001; Eisenberger, Cummings, Armeli, & Lynch, 1997; Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986) asserts that employees form general beliefs about how much their organization cares about their well-being and values their performance and contributions. The underlying process of organizational support theory is that employees feel obliged to reciprocate positive behaviors, whereby employees reciprocate benefits received from their organization.

These theories suggest that the work environment has an impact on job performance, satisfaction, and commitment. For example, research in hospitality management has shown that training programs for hotel employees (Roehl & Swerdlow, 1999); positive working conditions and low demands among cooks (Young & Corsun, 2010); training, rewards, and empowerment among hotel employees (H. J. Kim, Tavitiyaman, & Kim, 2009); training and mentorship among new hospitality employees (Lam & Chan, 2002); empowerment among hotel employees (Chiang & Jang, 2008); and practices that positively influence work–family conflicts among hotel employees (Namasivayam & Mount, 2004) have a positive impact on employee job performance, satisfaction, and commitment. Thus, hospitality management research consistently shows that job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment are influenced by work conditions. The current study expands on this literature by examining if providing pictures to guide performance in an environment of limited language proficiency also influences job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment in a foodservice context.

Visual Aids in Learning

Research shows that although people learn differently, visual aids or using pictures is an effective method for learning. The generative theory of multimedia learning (Leutner, Plass, Chun, & Mayer, 1998) provides a theoretical framework to examine how using pictures in food industry operations might have positive effects on job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment when communication barriers exist. This theory posits that learners engage in three major processes—selecting, organizing, and integrating—when they are presented with visual and verbal information such as pictures with text. In accordance, there are three steps. First, the learner focuses on the text and the image to remember by visual memory and a text-based memory. Second, the learner organizes the visual text memory into a logical verbal and visual representation. Third, the learner makes connections between features of the two representations and uses memory and applies it to real-life situations (Leutner et al., 1998).

Similarly, the dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1990) suggests that the brain uses separate memory systems for different types of information, one for images (i.e., image memory) and another system for words (i.e., verbal memory). According to neuroscience research, when one engages the image memory system (e.g., by looking at a picture), attentional resources are allocated to maximize information processing of the image, whereas less attentional resources are allocated to the verbal memory for aural information (Shomstein & Yantis, 2004, 2006). Thus, neuroscience research underscores the importance of visual stimuli for learning and performance because visual processing is highly specialized.

Accordingly, by using pictures, the learner engages in different cognitive functions and deep-processing learning (Bartholome & Bromme, 2009). That is, pictures assist in the learning process because they create a mental representation of the steps or concept of what is being learned. Another advantage to using pictures is that people strongly tie their emotions, personal experiences, and memories to sight and pictures, making the learning process more meaningful (Gallo, 2002). More important, however, is that using pictures reduces cognitive load or mental resources (Van Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005). For example, when two individuals who do not effectively speak the same language engage with each other using verbal communication only, the two interactants have to spend time figuring out what the words mean in each sentence. Dissecting each sentence takes time and effort, which can lead to mental exhaustion. Using pictures reduces such cognitive load, because one interactant can rely on the pictures to discern what the other interactant is conveying without having to scrutinize each word and sentence.

Using pictures for training or performance purposes in the foodservice industry or other hospitality establishments is an area of interest (Magnini & Honeycutt, 2005) and has some initial research support. For instance, research shows that using pictures in the workplace increases proper food handling (such as hand washing), proper use of hair nets, and removal of jewelry among Hispanic employees in food production and processing settings (Nieto-Montenegro, Brown, & LaBorde, 2008). In addition, using pictures in training for food portion size and cost control leads to improvements in estimating food size, self-efficacy in judging portion sizes, and more accurate knowledge of portion size information than training that does not involve pictures (Ayala, 2006). Pictures have also been shown to promote greater learning of hospitality concepts among students enrolled in hospitality courses (Keegan, 2007). Thus, although not tested, the aforementioned research suggests that using pictures when working in an environment with communication barriers can have a positive impact on job performance and job attitudes, such as task satisfaction and job commitment.

Job Performance in Foodservice Operations

Job performance includes behaviors that are relevant to the bottom line of an organization and can be measured in terms of contribution (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Judge, Bono, & Locke, 2000). In the context of foodservice operations, high food quality and an accurate product that is produced in the shortest amount of time are an important component of performance (Gupta, McLaughlin, & Gomez, 2007; Liu & Jang 2009; Namkung & Jang, 2007; Raajpoot, 2002; Stevens, Knutson, & Patton, 1995; Sulek & Hensley, 2004).

Food quality is commonly accepted as an essential element of the overall restaurant experience for customers (Kivela, Inbakaran, & Reece, 1999; Raajpoot, 2002; Sulek & Hensley, 2004). In a study of dining satisfaction and return patronage, Kivela et al. (1999) found that food quality had many components including presentation, taste, and temperature. Plate presentation is one of the customer’s first impressions of the meal and influences the acceptance of the food and perceived flavor of the food. In fact, both Kivela et al. (1999) and Raajpoot (2002) reported that plate presentation is a key attribute in dining satisfaction and return patronage.

In addition to plate presentation, taste is an important factor in customer satisfaction and intention to return (Kivela et al., 1999). Related to taste is the temperature, which is considered a sensory element of food quality and influences how customers perceive the flavor (Delwiche, 2004; Hwang & Sneed, 2007). That is, food temperature interacts with the senses (taste, smell, texture, and sight) and influences the consumer’s evaluation of the dish. Other components of job performance for foodservice operations include food accuracy and the speed with which it is prepared. Stevens et al. (1995) designed the DINESERV questionnaire to examine customers’ perception of restaurant performance, which included items such as “serves you in the time promised” and “serves your food exactly as you ordered it.” As such, research has demonstrated that temporal performance or the speed of completing a dish, food quality, and food accuracy are important performance criteria for foodservice operations.

When working in an environment that includes communication barriers, pictures of the recipe ingredients, instructions, and finished product can help attenuate the effect of poor language skills. That is, because foodservice managers often struggle to communicate with non–English speakers (Lee & Chon, 2000), managers can use pictures to help non-English-speaking employees complete a dish. By relying on pictures rather than verbal instruction alone, managers can circumvent communication barriers. Pictures can convey the ingredients, the steps required for completing recipes, and the plate presentation. As a result, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 1: The performance of participants who use pictures when producing a dish will be higher on dimensions of (a) time, (b) quality, and (c) accuracy than of participants who do not use pictures.

Task Satisfaction

Task satisfaction is commonly defined as a positive emotional state resulting from employees’ appraisal of the task that they perform at their job (Parker & Jimmieson, 2009; Stanton & Barnes-Farrell, 1996; Taber & Alliger, 1995). Task satisfaction is a narrower construct than job satisfaction in that task satisfaction focuses on one of the various tasks associated with a job. As such, employees can report satisfaction with their job but also report dissatisfaction with one or more tasks that they do for their job. Research shows that task satisfaction is related to job satisfaction such that the more satisfied employees feel with the various tasks the more job satisfaction employees report (Taber & Alliger, 1995).

Although individual differences have been linked to task satisfaction, research consistently shows that features of the task, such as autonomy, responsibility, and how challenging the task is, can influence task satisfaction (Larsen, 2003; Taber & Alliger, 1995). In the foodservice industry, communication and language barriers can be considered to be an important feature of the tasks that employees perform that can influence their satisfaction (Hancer & George, 2003). For example, research suggests that immigrants feel discouraged rather than empowered when they have to rely on coworkers for translation purposes (Waldinger, 1999). It is possible that using pictures when preparing food items can positively influence employees’ task satisfaction, because the employees can rely on the pictures rather than on coworkers’ or supervisors’ assistance. Hancer and George (2003) found that working conditions is an important aspect of satisfaction among restaurant workers and suggested that practices and policies related to enhancing the job performance of employees are an important predictor of satisfaction. Therefore, task satisfaction can be influenced by methods that give direction to employees’ job performance.

Immigrants with limited English also tend to report that they feel confusion and uncertainty about their tasks at work because of their limited language skills (Castro et al., 2006). Task satisfaction can be affected when managers cannot give clear, detailed instructions to employees. That is, task satisfaction is related to how clear one’s responsibilities are (Larsen, 2003), so providing pictures will make the expected outcome easier for employees. In fact, research shows that role ambiguity—when employees are uncertain of their task—is negatively related to satisfaction for employees in service industry jobs (Glisson & Durick, 1988). Not knowing the specific steps in a task can lead to role ambiguity, which can negatively affect task satisfaction. By providing direction for individual tasks, employees are more likely to experience reduced ambiguities, which can exist when communication barriers are present. As such, the following was hypothesized:

Hypothesis 2: Task satisfaction will be higher for participants who use pictures when producing a dish than for participants who do not use pictures when producing a dish.

Job Commitment

Another related job attitude is job commitment, or the level of dedication or devotion to one’s job (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001; Scandura & Lankau, 1997). Job commitment focuses on employees’ attitude toward their job in terms of how psychologically attached they are to their job. Committed employees tend to exhibit serious intentions about remaining in their job, whereas less committed employees do not have long-term intentions regarding their job. Usually, employees who are not committed have concerns and attitudes that do not align with the goals or objectives of their job (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Moreover, job commitment is an important job attitude that is linked to important work outcomes in hospitality industry jobs, such as turnover intentions among restaurant workers (W. G. Kim, Leong, & Lee, 2005) and hotel employees (Lam & Chan, 2002) and contextual performance among private club managers (Cichy, Cha, & Kim, 2009).

Like task satisfaction, research shows that although a broad range of personal characteristics influence commitment, job characteristics are important antecedents of job commitment (Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). Therefore, in the context of non-English-speaking workers, pictures may increase commitment to the job by reducing the ambiguities that result from communication barriers. Because role ambiguity and role conflict are negatively related to job commitment for employees in service industry jobs (Glisson & Durick, 1988), the use of pictures will create clear directions for work activities, because visual representations increase one’s level of understanding of concepts and steps (Leutner et al., 1998). If employees do not comprehend their job and/or responsibilities, they will be less likely to be committed to their job. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 3: Job commitment will be higher for participants who use pictures when preparing a dish than for participants who do not use pictures when preparing a dish.

Method

Sample

The participants included 107 students majoring in hotel and restaurant management (49% men and 51% women) at a 4-year university. The average age was 22.10 years (SD = 3.4). The majority of the participants (69%) held a current part- or full-time job in the hospitality industry; of the employed participants, 33% held a management position. Additionally, 44% reported having to “frequently” interact with non-English-speaking employees at work. Approximately 42% identified their ethnicity/race as Caucasian, 25% as Asian, 21% as Hispanic, 5% as African American/Black, and 7% as “other.”

Experimental Design and Procedure

To test our hypotheses, a two-group experimental design was developed in that participants were randomly assigned to work with or without pictures. The goal of each group was to complete a dish that consisted of three recipes that were judged by a panel of individuals with previous food and beverage management experience. The judges were instructors and graduate assistants with culinary backgrounds who did not participate in the experiment, were not told the purpose of the study, and therefore were blind to the hypotheses and conditions. The judges rated each groups’ dish on food quality and food accuracy.

To test the hypotheses in the context of communication barriers, a behavioral manipulation of perspective taking was used (Madera, Neal, & Dawson, 2011), whereby the participants were placed in the role of non-English-speaking employees. In particular, participants were randomly assigned into groups of 4 to 5 (N = 28) and were instructed to complete the dish in silence, imagining that they could not speak and understand English. The participants were provided with the recipes and instructions in an abstract, non-English language using Cyrillic letters. One participant from each group was assigned the role of manager and was provided with the recipe and instructions in English. The groups completed the recipes in silence and relied only on nonverbal methods of communications during the task.

In addition to the non–English language recipe and instructions, the participants in the picture manipulation experimental group were provided with photographs, which included photographs of the ingredients, photographs of each step for completing the recipes, and photographs of the plate presentation. Participants in the control group (i.e., no picture manipulation) were only provided with the non–English language recipes and instructions. The same kitchen laboratory space was used for all the groups.

After the experiments were completed, the researchers asked the students for feedback on the realism of the study. The majority of the participants indicated that the procedure used was very realistic. The reliance on the participants’ feedback is validated by the fact that (a) all of the participants were majoring in hotel and restaurant management, (b) the majority of the participants had hospitality work experience (69%), and (c) many had experience working with English-limited immigrant workers (44%).¹

In a replication of the experimental method used in the current study, a sample of 87 hotel and lodging managers (51% men and 49% women) also indicated that the procedure used was very realistic when asked after the experiment. The responses of the manager-sample replicated the responses of the sample from the current study, thereby providing evidence of mundane realism.

Measures

To measure the variables in the study, validated scales from the literature were adapted to the foodservice setting as follows.

Temporal performance

In line with past research (Davis & Voilmann, 1990; Kennon & Reynolds, 2001), the current research used the time of completion in minutes as the measure of temporal performance. The average time to complete a dish was 82.56 minutes (SD = 9.12), with a range from 61 to 101 minutes across conditions.

Food quality

Food quality was measured by five items adapted from previous studies on the foodservice sector (Gupta et al., 2007; Hwang & Sneed, 2007; Liu & Jang, 2009; Namkung & Jang, 2007). The judges rated the presentation, temperature, taste, aroma, and degree to which the food was fully cooked using the five items measured on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree.

Food accuracy

The food accuracy measure was developed using the recipes for the dish. The judges rated how closely and specifically the participants followed the recipe instructions using six items measured on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. Examples of the items are “The poblano peppers are diced on top of the mashed potatoes,” “The corn is served on the side of the mashed potatoes,” and “There is gravy on the chicken and mashed potatoes.”

Task satisfaction

To measure overall task satisfaction, a measure with five items from Judge et al. (2000) was used, and participants were instructed to complete the measure imagining that the task they completed and the environment represented their full-time job. Examples of the items are “I would be satisfied with this task” and “I would feel enthusiastic about work.” We used a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.

Job commitment

The job commitment scale was measured using a scale from Heilman & Okimoto (2008), in which participants were instructed to complete the measure imagining that the task they completed and the environment represented their full-time job. Examples of the items are “I would be very committed to this job” and “I would make this job a top priority.”

Results

Psychometric Analyses of the Measures

Because four judges rated each dish, the interrater reliabilities were examined for the measures of food quality and food accuracy, as well as the alpha reliabilities of the measures. For food quality, the interrater reliabilities for the five items ranged from .72 to .88. Thus, the ratings were combined by averaging within, then across, judges, resulting in an alpha coefficient of .72, suggesting sufficient evidence for the reliability of the measure of food quality. For food accuracy, the interrater reliabilities for the six items ranged from .73 to .95. Thus, the ratings were combined by averaging within, then across, judges, resulting in an alpha coefficient of .71, suggesting sufficient evidence for the reliability of the measure of food accuracy. The task satisfaction and job commitment measures yielded a coefficient alpha of .88 and .90, respectively.

In addition to the internal consistency tests, the unidimensionality of the measures was examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for each measure. To determine the adequacy of fit, we used five fit indices: (a) the chi-square (χ²) and degrees of freedom (df), (b) the comparative fit index (CFI), (c) the incremental fit index (IFI), (d) the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and (e) the relative chi-square (χ²/df). It is suggested that goodness-of-fit indices for CFI and IFI are greater than 0.90, RMSEA is less than 0.08, and the relative chi-square should be less than 2 (Byrne, 2001; Steiger, 1990; Ullman, 2001; Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). The CFA results demonstrated adequate fit: χ² = 173.65, df = 146, p > .05; CFI = .98; IFI = .98; RMSEA = .057.

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics and associated measures for the constructs. The reliabilities for the scales demonstrated adequate internal consistency of measures. Average variance extracted (AVE) for each scale was greater than 0.50 cutoff (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Convergent validity for the measurement scale items was achieved since all indicators loaded on the proposed constructs significantly at p < .05 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). To demonstrate discriminant validity, the squared correlation between pairs of constructs should be lower than the AVE for each individual construct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Adequate discriminant validity was demonstrated since the AVEs for the measures were greater than the squared correlations between pairs.

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics and Associated Measures

	α	Mean	SD	AVE	1	2	3	4	5
1. Temporal performance	—	82.6	9.1	—	—	−.07^a	.06	−.24*	−.28*
2. Food quality	.72	5.78	0.79	.52	.001^b	—	.30*	.08	.01
3. Food accuracy	.71	5.22	1.1	.56	.004	.09	—	.11	.05
4. Task satisfaction	.88	2.59	1.1	.72	.06	.006	.01	—	.71*
5. Job commitment	.90	2.84	1.2	.75	.08	.0001	.002	.50	—
Goodness-of-fit statistics
χ²(146) = 173.65, p > .05
χ²/df = 1.19
CFI = .98, IFI = .98
RMSEA = .057

Note. AVE = average variance extracted; CFI = comparative fit index; IFI = incremental fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation.

Correlations are above the diagonal.

Squared correlations are below the diagonal.

p < .05.

Test of Hypotheses

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to test Hypothesis 1, with picture manipulation as the independent variable and the performance variables, time, quality, and accuracy as the dependent variables. The results showed a significant effect of picture manipulation on the temporal performance measure, F(1, 104) = 4.26, p < .05, η² = 0.04. In particular, the participants who used pictures completed the dish in a shorter amount of time (M = 80.21, SD = 7.8) than participants who did not use pictures (M = 84.08, SD = 10.53). The results of the MANOVA showed a significant effect of picture manipulation on the food quality measure, F(1, 104) = 27.68, p <.05, η² = 0.21. Specifically, the participants who used pictures produced dishes that were rated as of higher quality (M = 6.24, SD = .48) than participants who did not use pictures (M = 5.66, SD =.64). The results of the MANOVA showed a significant effect of picture manipulation on the food accuracy measure, F(1, 104) = 14.93, p <.05, η² = 0.14. In particular, the participants who used pictures produced dishes that were rated as more accurate (M = 5.72, SD = 0.69) than participants who did not use pictures (M = 4.97, SD = 1.2). Thus, the results supported Hypothesis 1 on all three performance measure.

A MANOVA was conducted to test Hypotheses 2 and 3, with picture manipulation as the independent variable and task satisfaction and job commitment as the dependent variables. A MANOVA with these variables was an appropriate test because these variables were self-reported and were significantly correlated. The results of the MANOVA showed a significant effect of picture manipulation on task satisfaction, F(1, 104) = 7.96, p <.05, η² = 0.07. In particular, task satisfaction was significantly higher for the participants who used pictures (M = 2.86, SD = 1.1) than the participants who did not use pictures (M = 2.29, SD = 1.1), thereby supporting Hypothesis 2. Last, the results showed that there was a significant effect on job commitment, F(1, 104) = 5.25, p < .05, η² = 0.05. Particularly, participants who used pictures reported more job commitment (M = 3.08, SD = 1.0) than those who did not use pictures (M = 2.58, SD = 1.2), thereby supporting Hypothesis 3. See Table 2 for a summary of the results.

Table 2

Means and Standard Deviations for the Dependent Variables

Dependent Variables	Picture; Mean (SD)	No Picture; Mean (SD)	F
Temporal performance	84.08 (10.53)	80.21 (7.8)	4.26*
Food quality	6.24 (0.48)	5.66 (0.64)	27.68*
Food accuracy	5.72 (0.69)	4.97 (1.2)	14.93*
Task satisfaction	2.86 (1.1)	2.29 (1.1)	7.96*
Job commitment	3.08 (1.0)	2.58 (1.2)	5.25*

p < .05.

Discussion

The purpose of the current study was to examine a method that food industry employers can use to effectively manage employees when communication barriers exist. In particular, this study examined how using pictures when using recipes can have a positive influence on job performance and job attitudes, such as task satisfaction and job commitment. Using experimental methods in a food kitchen laboratory, the current study manipulated whether participants used pictures or not when using three recipes to produce a dish, working in silence, and relying on nonverbal communication. The results showed that using pictures had a positive effect on performance. In particular, the participants who used pictures completed the dish 3.87 minutes faster than the those who did not use pictures, which may not seem significant; however, in quick-service operations, 3- to 5-minute ticket times are typical. In addition, the participants who used pictures produced dishes that were rated as of higher quality and more accurate than those who did not use pictures. The results showed that using pictures with recipe instructions can help food industry managers circumvent some of the communication barriers that they often face when working with non-English-speaking employees, which is critical when considering that food industry operators’ goal is to produce a high-quality, consistent product in the shortest amount of time.

Industry Implications

The results of the current study have important implications for the foodservice industry in view of the fact that the workforce is culturally diverse. In fact, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that the country’s Latino/Hispanic labor pool is likely to grow substantially faster than most other cultural groups (Salazar, 2010) and that nearly 73% of immigrant workers in low-paying occupations speak Spanish as their primary language (Capps et al., 2003). Moreover, the United States is becoming a popular destination for large numbers of illegal and legal Asian immigrants (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2006); therefore, the hospitality workforce will continue to be composed of multilingual employees. Currently, there is limited research on the use of pictures in hospitality operations. Companies may not want to invest time and money into creating photographs. This study showed that a method as simple as including pictures with recipes not only improves performance (time, quality, and accuracy) but is also correlated with attitudes, all of which has a direct impact on the firm’s performance (i.e., the bottom-line). Therefore, companies should consider investing resources to do this.

In regard to the findings on job attitudes, the data suggest that employees’ task satisfaction and commitment are positively influenced by using pictures with the recipes and cooking instructions for employees who have limited language proficiencies. This is an important implication considering the fact that turnover rates in the hospitality industry are very high and costly (Hinkin & Tracey, 2000; Tracey & Hinkin, 2008). In particular, depending on the position, the cost of replacing productive employees can be in the thousands of dollars per employee, with the costs primarily based on recruiting expenses and lost productivity (Tracey & Hinkin, 2008); and research clearly suggests that turnover is associated with satisfaction and commitment (Hancer & George, 2003; W. G. Kim et al., 2005; Lam & Chan, 2002).

It is not known if these findings vary according to the type of restaurant segment (e.g., fast food, casual table service, fine dining). Operations may differ with regard to the specific job duties that are performed by non-English speakers. The majority of employees without English language skills are placed in positions with limited guest contact, which is often the kitchen. In fast-food operations, the new employees may go directly into the role of fry cook. In a casual or fine dining establishment, the new hires will typically begin as dishwashers and then move within the hierarchy based on their job performance (Alder, 2005). More specifically, Hispanic employees hold 29% of all dishwasher positions, 26% of all cook positions, 25% of all front-of-house positions, and 22% of all chef and head cook positions (Cho, Erdem, Hertzman, & Litterlin, 2009). Nevertheless, the use of pictures is relevant to training. Photographs can be used not only to help standardize food preparation but also within the context of basic operating procedures. Again, this will be worth the investment for foodservice operators because it not only benefits non-English speakers but may also improve the performance and attitudes of all employees.

Research Implications

The current study offers some important research and theoretical implications. The results of the study expand on past research in hospitality management examining how changes in the work environment can influence job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment (e.g., Chiang & Jang, 2008; H. J. Kim et al., 2009; Lam & Chan, 2002; Namasivayam & Mount, 2004; Roehl & Swerdlow, 1999; Young & Corsun, 2010). By manipulating whether the participants used pictures or not while working on a task in an environment with communication barriers, the current study showed that providing pictures to guide performance does indeed improve job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment.

Theoretically, these results can be understood within the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), investment model theory (Farrell & Rusbult, 1981), and organizational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Eisenberger et al., 1997; Eisenberger et al., 2001) frameworks. That is, these theories suggest that using pictures to help guide performance can be perceived as an investment, support, or a signal that their organization cares about their well-being, and in turn employees reciprocate the benefits received through job performance and positive work attitudes (i.e., task satisfaction and job commitment). One of the potential mechanisms that play a role in why the use of pictures leads to better job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment than not using pictures is that pictures minimize role ambiguity (Glisson & Durick, 1988). Working in an environment with communication barriers can potentially exacerbate role ambiguity, and providing pictures reduces the ambiguities that exist when communication barriers are present.

The results also suggest that visual stimuli are important for completing complex tasks, as would be predicted by the generative theory of multimedia learning (Leutner et al., 1998) and the dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1990). In the current study, the participants were required to prepare an entrée without the benefit of knowing how to read the recipe or the ability to communicate verbally, representing a complex task. As demonstrated by neuroscience research, visual processing is a highly specialized process for performing complex task that require attentional resources (Shomstein & Yantis, 2004, 2006). The participants with the pictures not only completed the entrée quicker but also produced dishes that were rated as of higher quality and more accurate than those who did not use pictures.

Limitations and Future Research

A limitation of the current study is that students were used and the methodology created the environment of limited language proficiency by providing the recipes and instructions in abstract, non-English language. Although, this method has been shown to be an effective one to create an environment similar to what a non-English speaker might face (Dawson, Neal, & Madera, 2011; Madera et al., 2011), the experiences of immigrant workers might include more complex and dynamic processes that were not examined in the current experiment. For example, the duration of the current experiment was about 3 hours, which compared with realistic settings represents only a small portion of what non-English speakers experience in the workplace.

A direction for future research might be to examine these issues with a sample of employed immigrants with limited English proficiency, because it could be the case that they and their managers develop effective communication skills or methods over time. In addition, experienced managers may develop effective forms of communication within their operations. Future research might examine differences between experienced and new managers’ communication methods with employees who have limited English language proficiency.

Future research might also examine the mediating variables that link the use of pictures to job attitudes. With regard to the task satisfaction and job commitment results, it is believed that one of the reasons why using pictures led to higher attitudes than in the control group is that the pictures circumvented the ambiguity and stress associated with not being able to understand the language used for the recipe and instructions. However, among immigrant employees, it could also be the case that using pictures would lead to positive attitudes because the use of pictures might also be perceived as the organization caring about them. That is, using pictures with recipes and cooking instructions might send signals to employees that their employer cares about their job performance and progress. Research indicates that diversity of initiatives can have positive effects on minority members’ job attitudes, because it shows that their employers care about their well-being (Avery, Hernandez, & Hebl, 2004; Bell & Kravitz, 2008).

Another direction for future research is to examine ethnic group differences on job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment as a function of using pictures or not using pictures. Research suggests that cultural congruency (i.e., having the same national origin) is important for leader–subordinate relationships (Testa, 2002, 2009). Therefore, it is likely that cultural congruency would also be important for employees working in groups.

Notwithstanding the limitations and the suggestions for further work, the results of the current studysuggest that using pictures with recipes and cooking instructions can be an effective tool that positively affects job performance, task satisfaction, and job commitment. Such methods are practical and cost-effective and might successfully lead to effective management of workers with limited English proficiency. Learning and adapting to work roles and responsibilities is an important process that all employees experience and is vital for the self-confidence and performance of employees, regardless of language differences (Adkins, 1995; Young, 2003).

Footnotes

Juan M. Madera, PhD (e-mail: jmmadera@uh.edu), is an assistant professor at the Conrad N. Hilton College of Hotel and Restaurant Management, University of Houston, Houston, Texas. Jack A. Neal, PhD (e-mail: jneal@central.uh.edu), is an assistant professor at the Conrad N. Hilton College of Hotel and Restaurant Management, University of Houston, Houston, Texas. Mary Dawson, EdD (e-mail: mdawson@central.uh.edu), is an assistant professor at the Conrad N. Hilton College of Hotel and Restaurant Management, University of Houston, Houston, Texas. Kristin Busch, graduate student (e-mail: kabusch@uh.edu), Conrad N. Hilton College of Hotel and Restaurant Management, University of Houston, Houston, Texas.

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