Digital divide in the Middle East and North Africa: Introduction to the special issue

The Middle East and North Africa’s (MENA) social, economic, and technological development often seems uneven compared with other parts of the world. Nonetheless, the potential of the MENA region’s peoples, natural resources, and nations is remarkable. This potential seems even more substantial, given the advent of new digital technologies such as smartphones and social media and the increased integration of ICTs into nearly every part of society. In recent decades, the transformative capacity of digital communications media has been driving sustainable economic growth and broader social development. Despite this noted migration of social life into the digital sphere, often termed the digital transformation in economic circles, little research focuses on digital inequalities in the MENA region.

This special issue is the first step in filling this gap in the research literature by providing a forum for digital divide research on subjects within the MENA region. This specially curated collection of articles sheds a novel and much-needed light on a relatively understudied topic: how digital media forms and ICT use change social life in the MENA region. While each article contributes to the scholarly literature, the collection provides fertile ground for discussing digital divides and changing social relations. In a nutshell, the articles are some of the first to look at the digitization and change that new technologies have brought about in people’s lives in the MENA region. The project also seeks to understand how technological changes affect the region’s broader geopolitical context, including the post-colonial roots of modern societies in MENA. In concrete terms, the special issue begins a much-needed conversation about the hopes and impediments to digital society in MENA, including economic dynamics, technical issues, cultural aspects, digital literacy and skills, governance of digital life, and social development.

There are many reasons to study MENA nations, cultures, and sub-regions as contexts for new media technologies and the social and cultural issues resulting from their adoption. The MENA region is heterogeneous in terms of political regimes, economy, demography, language, and culture. The region’s level of inequality is well known, both within countries and between countries in MENA. The highly developed and petroleum-rich countries of the GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) contract with the relatively less-developed regions in the Levant and parts of North Africa (MENA-OECD Investment Programme, 2011). In addition, some countries within MENA notably remain sites of protracted internal or external conflicts. Demographically, the population in MENA is very young, and many youth are unemployed, often living in conflict zones (OECD, 2022). Women’s status and gender equality vary widely in the region, as some countries rate quite well in gender equality measures (e.g., access to education and health outcomes) and others lag (e.g., women’s unemployment and pay differential) (Yermo, 2020).

Such offline and frequently longstanding inequalities and conflicts manifest in digital spheres, replicated within and between countries. Within the region, the use of social media is relatively high, reflecting high adoption rates (Radcliffe and Abuhmaid, 2023) across various platforms. Facebook remains the most popular in the region. However, specific platforms (e.g., WhatsApp, Instagram, and Twitter [X]) have reached popularity within select nations or sub-regions (Wee and Li, 2019: 12). Trust in social media is notably limited compared to other regions (Wee and Li, 2019), which in part may contribute to slow growth in the region’s digital economy (Cusolito et al., 2022). Thus, media dynamics appear at the hub of one contradiction in MENA: the region has high literacy levels and good digital infrastructure, yet online and offline inequalities persist. This fact seems to retard the ability of digital users in MENA to develop digital capital to overcome both online and offline inequalities.

The complexities of digital inequalities in MENA stem from the region’s cultural, economic, and historical legacies. This context suggests the region is a more-than-suitable site for digital divide studies. Nonetheless, most research on digital inequalities focuses on Western societies. A bibliometric study of digital divide literature focusing on the Web of Science database indicated that the USA, UK, and Spain are the most productive in the field (Basit et al., 2021). Not surprisingly, very few studies of digital divides emerge from the developing world (Aissaoui, 2022).

Within the scholarly literature on digital inequalities, researchers need to pay more attention to the effects of digital inequality on society, the economy, and culture in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Further, there are impediments to adapting methods of studying digital inequalities in the West to Arab-dominated or highly multicultural settings in MENA (Al-Sumait et al., 2023). Elsewhere, research on digital inequalities has focused on the Global South in general (Ragnedda and Gladkova, 2020), in Africa (Mutsvairo et al., 2021), and in Asia (Barbier, 2022). We know that the advent of digital media has profoundly changed life, work, and socialization (Yates and Rice, 2020). For example, the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated this trend (Oldekop et al., 2020), forcing many services and resources to migrate online. Often, these services were otherwise inaccessible, excluding many people (Seifert, 2020). As a result, while offering certain advantages, the development of digital technology has also penalized individuals on the wrong side of the digital divide, exacerbating previously present inequities. In a vicious cycle where social and digital inequalities reinforce one another, these digital inequalities intertwine with existing social inequalities (Ragnedda et al., 2022).

Despite the evident shift of social interactions to the digital sphere, the digital transformation’s iterations in MENA’s distinct cultures and societal dynamics remain unexplored. This special issue represents a crucial effort to illuminate this territory, explicitly examining how digital media, digital disparities, and ICT adoption fundamentally alter social life within the MENA region. The aim is to reflect on digital inequalities beyond the dichotomous division of having versus not having access (Ragnedda and Muschert, 2013), but looking at the inequalities in using ICTs and digital skills (Attewell, 2001; Bonfadelli, 2002) and outcomes (Ragnedda, 2017; Van Deursen and Helsper, 2015).

This collection aims to discuss digital inequalities and how the emergence of cutting-edge digital technologies has exacerbated their effects on society and the economy. Empirical studies on this subject within the MENA region remain rare, underscoring the urgency and significance of this thematic issue. The aim is to focus on and reflect on the transformative impact of new technologies on individuals residing in this region. The core focus of this special issue lies in the attempt to unveil and critically discuss the social implications and perspectives related to digital inequalities in the MENA region. Contributors were encouraged to provide forward-thinking perspectives, charting a course toward potential solutions to the social challenges arising from digital inequalities. This strategy intends to illuminate how a greater comprehension of socioeconomic problems in the MENA region, combined with regional viewpoints, can catalyze international study on digital disparities. Ultimately, this expanded comprehension will equip us to navigate the complex terrain of digital divides and strive for a more inclusive and equitable digital society in MENA.

Each article in this curated collection examines sociological issues or perspectives on digital divides in the MENA region, contributed by scholars working in and focusing on digital divide studies in the region. The primary criterion for acceptance has been the scholarly quality and relevance of the topic, and each article examines a specific social issue or perspective related to the digital divide in MENA. Moreover, each contribution includes empirical analysis that connects theoretically to broader debates in sociology and other closely related social science sub-fields. Indeed, the contributors offer forward-looking perspectives in their suggestions regarding the study of MENA social issues and how regional perspectives can help inform research on digital inequalities worldwide. Individually, each article makes its own focused contribution to scholarship. The collection provides a hub for scholarly conversations about digital divide topics within the region. A discipline-neutral discourse serves broader scholarly interests within the multi-disciplinary field of digital technologies in social and cultural contexts. Thus, articles in this issue should be accessible to those generally versed in social sciences and cultural studies.

The special issue starts with a paper by Fahed Y. Alsumait, Ellen Helsper, and Miriam Rahali, focusing on digital inequalities in a multicultural Arab setting. ‘Adapting Global Methodologies to Digital Inequalities: Research in a Multicultural Arab Environment’ sheds light on how information and communication technologies (ICT), like the internet and mobile phones, have transformed knowledge sharing and interactions across borders. The concern raised is whether the benefits of this digital shift are equitably distributed among countries and within them. Specifically, the study examines the Kuwaiti context and how it shapes people’s understanding of digital inequalities regarding access, skills, engagement, and outcomes related to ICT usage. It also emphasizes the need to adapt and validate survey measures that assess socio-digital inequalities, considering both universal and contextual aspects and linguistic and cultural differences. The study highlights Kuwait’s unique socioeconomic and demographic makeup and its position as a digital frontrunner in the MENA region. Despite the progress, the research uncovers challenges and nuances vital for designing effective survey methodologies in this diverse and evolving digital landscape.

The second article, ‘The Digital Divide in the Journalism Sector’, explores the evolving perception of technology’s role in economic growth in the Arab region since 2011. In this article, Noha Mellor reflects that American Big Tech firms initially appeared as catalysts for social uprisings. However, by 2021, concerns had shifted due to the spread of false information on social media and Big Tech’s unilateral actions in the region. Mellor points out how technology does not level the playing field and can perpetuate offline power dynamics. It emphasizes the digital divide between the Global North and South, particularly in digital advertising that Big Tech monopolizes, by focusing on digital journalism in the Arab region. The article also highlights the rise of clickbait content and the need for collaborative efforts to address these challenges.

Veysel Bozan and Emiliano Treré, in this special issue’s third article, focus on disconnection in rural Turkey. ‘When Digital Inequalities Meet Digital Disconnection: Studying the Material Conditions of Disconnection in Rural Turkey’ highlights the lack of focus in digital inequalities research on voluntary non-use and its impacts. It presents findings from a rural village in Turkey, revealing that fundamental inequalities arise from infrastructure, geography, and socioeconomic conditions, shaping digital disconnection practices and meanings. The study emphasizes the materiality and affordability of digital technologies that influence media consumption and disconnective practices. Additionally, it points out that the meaning of disconnection differs significantly in contexts where disconnection is a harsh reality compared to the romanticized portrayal in digital detox retreats. The article calls for further exploration at the intersection of digital inequalities and disconnection, advocating for a more comprehensive understanding of dis/connection cultures, motivations, and effects.

Finally, ‘Digital Inequalities in North Africa: Examining Employment and Socioeconomic Well-being in Morocco and Tunisia’ explores how people in Tunisia and Morocco utilize digital technology, the factors that influence these patterns, and the effects that unequal access and usage have on people’s socioeconomic well-being in the post-Arab Spring era. Hasnain Bokhari’s study utilizes Afrobarometer household surveys from 2013 to 2022, encompassing 9,595 respondents, to construct a digital inclusion index and analyze the dynamics of digital inequalities. The research finds improved digital inclusion in both countries from 2013 to 2022, but over 80% of their populations remain partially or entirely excluded. Gender, age, education, and socioeconomic status significantly influence digital inclusion, indicating persistent inequalities and barriers. It emphasizes that access to ICTs is not enough; their meaningful usage and subsequent advantages are equally important, and it finds a strong positive association between digital inclusion, employment status, and socioeconomic well-being, underscoring the need for comprehensive strategies to bridge the digital divide in these countries. The study highlights the need to address these disparities to achieve equitable digital inclusion, especially in the MENA region.

This thematic issue on the digital divide in MENA presents a compact and focused collection of studies covering various issues of digital inequalities in the region. While far from comprehensive, given the diversity and scale of human society in MENA, the curated collection nonetheless fills existing scholarly gaps, laying a foundation for continued research. Along the way, many colleagues have played meaningful roles in contributing to this thematic issue’s success. The guest editors express gratitude to the editors-in-chief of Convergence for sharing valuable space in this high-quality scholarly venue. Numerous unnamed peer reviewers have provided scholarly expertise, shared academic perspectives, and contributed essential brainpower. Finally, the contributors have risen to the challenge of filling the existing gap in scholarly research examining digital inequalities in MENA. We guest editors have been grateful to serve in this capacity, as our professional and personal lives have become embedded in the MENA region’s mediatized social relations.