How celebrity-endorsed travel livestreaming triggers impulsive buying? The role of trust and positive emotions

Abstract

Although impulsive buying (IB) has spread because of livestreaming, current knowledge on this topic is still relatively rare. Therefore, to understand the underlying mechanisms beyond this relationship, this study aims to investigate the effect of celebrity-endorsed travel livestreaming (CETLS) on consumers’ IB. Further, it explores the mediating roles of positive emotions (PEs) and trust (TS). Data were collected from members of travel groups on social media networks. PLS-SEM analysis of 584 valid responses was employed. The findings showed that CETLS significantly and positively affects consumers’ PEs, TS, and IB. Moreover, the findings depicted that PEs and TS mediates the link between CETLS and IB. This study provides a valuable perspective to explore tourists’ IB through CETLS. Further, it also advances knowledge of tourists’ IB by investigating the mediating role of PEs and TS.

Keywords

Travel livestreaming impulsive buying celebrity endorsement trust positive emotions

Introduction

Livestreaming has quickly become a new tool for worldwide information transmission over the last five years (Shen et al., 2022). In addition to livestreaming platforms, certain websites, like Facebook, Snapchat, Instagram, and TikTok, provide livestreaming services (Lee and Chen, 2021). Unlike pre-recorded advertisement videos on YouTube, livestreaming can offer an immersive real-time experience and a two-way, deep interpersonal connection between customers and sellers, so it allows buyers to talk with sellers about their issues at any moment and receive customized service suggestions via synchronous communication (Wongkitrungrueng et al., 2020).

In the tourism field, today's travelers are not only on the road but also on the smart phone, the internet, and the screen (Deng et al., 2019), which encouraged the rise of “travel livestreaming (TLS).” The term travel livestreaming was first introduced by Deng et al. (2019). It describes travelers who utilize livestreaming services to share their travel experiences, record the scenery of their destinations, and communicate with other users in real-time (Deng et al., 2021).

Livestreaming enables potential travelers to explore a destination or property in real-time, offering an engaging and interactive way to “virtually” visit a location before an actual trip. This can build excitement and anticipation, particularly for showcasing unique experiences, events, or hard-to-access areas (Lin et al., 2022). The growing presence of travel influencers and celebrities conducting live tours or reviews of destinations and hotels has transformed livestreaming into a powerful marketing tool. Viewers can form a sense of connection and trust (TS) with the influencer, often resulting in increased bookings and sales (Zhang et al., 2024a).

Importantly, livestreaming supports tourism and hospitality businesses to engage directly with their audience, respond to questions, and gather immediate feedback. This interaction helps to strengthen customer relationships and enhance brand loyalty (Li et al., 2024). In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, livestreaming has also become a vital tool for addressing travelers’ concerns and uncertainties. Businesses can use live video to demonstrate enhanced safety protocols, provide updates on destination conditions, and offer potential guests a “sneak peek” of what to expect (Yang et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2022).

CETLS exerts a significant influence on consumers’ IB tendencies by harnessing the credibility and allure of celebrities to captivate viewers’ attention and sway their purchasing decisions in real-time (Lv et al., 2022). The interactive and immersive nature of livestreaming, coupled with the persuasive impact of celebrities, forms a compelling stimulus that elicits positive emotions (PEs) and fosters consumer TS (Phung et al., 2023). This emotional connection and trustworthiness can prompt spontaneous purchasing actions as viewers are swayed by the perceived authority and aspirational allure of the endorsing celebrity, thereby heightening the probability of IB during the livestream (Doyle, 2016).

As well, CETLS significantly influences PEs and TS by capitalizing on celebrities’ charisma and perceived credibility. The real-time, interactive nature of livestreaming cultivates excitement, joy, and a sense of connection among viewers, amplifying their favorable sentiments toward the content and endorsed products or destinations (Kalam et al., 2024; Chen, 2023). Simultaneously, celebrities’ trustworthiness and authenticity reinforce consumer TS, heightening confidence in the recommendations’ quality and reliability. These dynamics create a compelling atmosphere that deepens emotional connections and TS, ultimately shaping more favorable consumer attitudes and behaviors (Hussain et al., 2020; Kim and Kim, 2020).

PEs significantly influence IB behavior by eliciting an immediate desire to purchase and reducing cognitive defenses against long-term consequences (Joy et al., 2023; Yi and Jai, 2020). Joy, excitement, and satisfaction make consumers more receptive to marketing messages, leading to spontaneous purchases to sustain or enhance their positive mood (Rialti et al., 2022). Meanwhile, consumer TS plays a vital role in IB by alleviating perceived risks and instilling confidence in purchase decisions (Gulfraz et al., 2022). TS in brands or endorsers enhances the shopping experience, encouraging quicker, less inhibited purchasing choices (Pham et al., 2024; Sujaya, 2023).

Despite the usage of livestreaming in the tourism industry has grown in importance, TLS has not received sufficient academic study (Deng et al., 2021; Xie et al., 2022). Also, the empirical studies on TLS are scarce (Li et al., 2024). Furthermore, despite the fact that impulsive buying (IB) is a prevalent phenomenon in the travel setting (Li et al., 2021) and a crucial topic for comprehending consumer behavior, it has been comparatively underdeveloped in tourism and hospitality studies (Ahn et al., 2020). Earlier studies revealed that livestreaming motivates viewers to make impulsive purchases for tourism products (e.g., Yu et al., 2022); however, the cause and the underlying mechanisms beyond this relationship remain unclear (Gao et al., 2022; Li et al., 2022a; Zhang et al., 2022a, 2022c). Thus, this study hypothesizes two mechanisms for this relationship: the first is PEs, and the second is TS. During livestreaming, celebrities can evoke PEs in viewers through their persuasive personalities, thus increasing their desire to buy the recommended items (Meng et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2019). Further, Qiu et al. (2021) confirmed that celebrity-endorsed TLS positively affects consumer TS. When customers feel trusted, their likelihood to make an IB increases (Ming et al., 2021).

In summary, this study provides a valuable perspective to explore tourists’ IB through celebrity-endorsed travel livestreaming (CETLS). Further, it also advances knowledge of tourists’ IB by investigating the mediating role of PEs and TS. This conceptual framework of the study is indicated in Figure 1. The remainder of this study is structured as follows: first, the earlier literature on CETLS and IB is reviewed. Second, it examined the theoretical relationships between study variables and formulated a number of hypotheses. The research methods and findings are then discussed. Finally, theoretical, and practical implications and directions for future research are presented in the concluding section.

Figure 1.

The study conceptual framework.

Conceptual framework and hypotheses development

The most widely used theory to explain how environmental psychology affects people's behavioral responses is called Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R). The fundamental idea of S-O-R theory demonstrates how diverse stimuli (S) affect a person's emotions or internal organism (O) which induce behavioral responses (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974; Song et al., 2019). The S-O-R theory is the most frequently employed in online shopping behavior studies, so it is suitable for analysis in current research. CETLS aims to stimulate customers (S), which in turn arouses their emotions and boosts their trust (O), ultimately leading to more impulsive purchases (R).

Celebrity-endorsed travel livestreaming and impulsive buying

Consumers often establish a deep emotional bond with the celebrities or influencers they follow, fostering a high level of TS and credibility in the presented travel experiences. As a result, viewers become more susceptible to the persuasive influence of livestream content (Pop et al., 2022). The immediacy and exclusivity of travel livestreams can evoke a sense of urgency and FOMO (fear of missing out) among viewers, prompting impulsive actions such as booking travel or purchasing related products (Zhang et al., 2024b). Furthermore, celebrities often showcase meticulously curated, luxurious, and desirable travel experiences, instilling a desire in viewers to emulate these experiences, thus prompting impulsive booking and purchasing decisions (Lamba, 2021).

The real-time, interactive format of travel livestreams enables viewers to swiftly make purchasing decisions, often with just a few taps on their mobile devices, thereby encouraging IB behavior (Liu and Yu, 2022). Viewers’ susceptibility to IB is heightened by their perception of celebrities as competent, credible, and authentic endorsers (Yu et al., 2022; Zafar et al., 2020, 2021). Despite evidence from past studies indicating the positive impact of CE on consumer IB in traditional e-commerce settings (Munjal, 2020; Xiang et al., 2016), there is a conspicuous absence of research investigating this relationship within the realm of travel livestreaming. It is anticipated that the partnership between celebrities and livestream broadcasters in promoting tourism services will exert a favorable influence on consumers’ IB behavior. However, the long-term ramifications of this trend are noteworthy for both consumers and the travel industry. Impulsive travel bookings may result in financial strain and feelings of regret among consumers, diminishing the overall travel experience. Conversely, travel brands and platforms may witness a surge in short-term bookings but could also encounter reputational harm and dissatisfied customers if the actual experiences fail to meet the expectations set by the celebrity-endorsed content (Baines et al., 2021; Shao et al., 2024). Li et al. (2022b) found that CEs have a detrimental impact on the connection between online shoppers’ hedonistic attitudes and their IB behavior during live shopping sessions. This could be attributed to the surge in negative publicity surrounding celebrities, prompting customers to become distrustful of them. Thus, based on the previous discussion, the following hypothesis was formulated:

H1: Celebrity-endorsed TLS positively influences consumers’ impulsive buying.

Celebrity-endorsed travel livestreaming and positive emotions

The profound impact of CETLS on consumer behavior stems from the strong emotional connection and TS established between viewers and the public figures they admire. Those celebrities have meticulously crafted personal brands and loyal followings, rendering their endorsements and recommendations highly influential (Moraes et al., 2019; Shao et al., 2024). Witnessing their favorite celebrities partake in luxurious, exclusive, or aspirational travel experiences in real-time evokes a myriad of positive emotional reactions among viewers. The sense of escapism and longing sparked by these seemingly perfect travel moments is incredibly compelling, as viewers associate such experiences with status, wealth, and personal fulfillment (Li et al., 2024; Moraes et al., 2019).

CETLS can evoke the powerful emotion of the fear of missing out. The time-sensitive and exclusive nature of the experiences featured can instill a sense of urgency and scarcity, prompting viewers to swiftly make purchasing decisions to avoid feelings of regret or exclusion (Dinh and Lee, 2022; Tungate, 2009). Furthermore, the presentation of these travel experiences significantly influences viewers’ emotional reactions. Celebrities often curate and present their travel content in a meticulously polished and visually captivating manner, highlighting the most glamorous and desirable aspects of the journey. This presentation style further intensifies feelings of escapism and longing as viewers mentally place themselves in the celebrity's position (Morrison et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024a). Similarly, Meng et al. (2021) demonstrated that celebrities’ presentations in livestreaming provoke emotions in customers, consequently heightening their inclination to purchase the endorsed products. This investigation indicated that observing online celebrities’ live streams had an emotional effect on consumers, eliciting sensations of pleasure, stimulation, emotional reliance, and reverence.

CETLS, although captivating at first, may eventually dampen consumers’ PEs. As viewers grow accustomed to these influencer-driven promotions, the initial excitement and sense of wanderlust they evoke may wane. Excessive exposure to meticulously curated and idealized travel experiences can breed envy, dissatisfaction, and a sense of disconnection between viewers’ realities and the seemingly glamorous lifestyles portrayed. This decline in PEs could weaken the effectiveness of such marketing strategies and potentially erode consumer TS in the genuineness of the celebrity's endorsements (Al-Romeedy, 2024; Farahat, 2023). Subsequently, this study proposes that:

H2: Celebrity-endorsed TLS positively influences consumers’ positive emotions.

Celebrity-endorsed travel livestreaming and trust

Understanding the impact of CETLS hinges on the relationship between consumers and the celebrities they follow. These influencers have meticulously built personal brands and devoted fan bases, fostering a deep sense of TS and emotional connection with their audience (Farahat, 2023). When viewers witness their favorite celebrities endorsing travel experiences in real-time, they are inclined to perceive these offerings as credible and desirable. The social proof inherent in the celebrity's endorsement holds significant sway, with consumers regarding the public figure as a trustworthy and dependable source of information and recommendations (Kim, 2023; Moraes et al., 2019).

The TS in the celebrity's judgment is heightened by the intimate, behind-the-scenes aspect of travel livestreaming. Viewers perceive they are gaining a more genuine and profound insight into the lives and experiences of these public figures, which bolsters the perceived authenticity and reliability of the content (Piper, 2022). Additionally, the immediacy and interactivity of live streaming further nurture TS. Viewers can actively engage with the celebrity or influencer in real-time, posing questions and receiving customized responses, fostering a sense of personal connection and openness (Zhang et al., 2022b). In service contexts, celebrity endorsements bolster consumer TS in brands (Dwivedi and Johnson, 2013). Similarly, Wang et al. (2017) found that CE had a favorable impact on airline customer TS. Qiu et al. (2021) further affirmed that CE in tourism and hospitality livestreaming positively influenced TS.

Over time, CETLS may erode consumer TS. While initially captivating and generating excitement about destinations, the perceived authenticity and transparency can decline as the novelty fades. Viewers may grow skeptical about the genuineness of these partnerships, questioning whether the celebrity's recommendations stem from personal experiences or commercial motives. This decline in TS undermines the efficacy of such marketing strategies, as viewers become less inclined to regard the celebrity as a reliable source of travel advice. Maintaining consumer TS necessitates a delicate equilibrium between the aspirational allure of these livestreams and the perceived sincerity of the celebrity's endorsement (Shao et al., 2024; Li et al., 2023). Based on this, the study proposes the following hypothesis:

H3: Celebrity-endorsed TLS positively influences consumers’ trust.

Positive emotions and impulsive buying

The influence of PEs on IB decisions originates from the intricate neural mechanisms governing emotional responses in the human brain. Exposure to visually captivating and emotionally resonant travel content elicits a series of neurochemical reactions, purportedly exerting a profound sway over consumers’ cognitive decision-making processes (Wang et al., 2022). This phenomenon underscores the multifaceted nature of the relationship between PEs and IB behaviors. Positive emotional states, such as excitement, joy, or a yearning for exploration, are posited to wield significant influence over consumers’ purchasing tendencies (Polat et al., 2024).

Studies have indicated that PEs have the potential to diminish consumers’ inhibitions and foster a propensity for IB. When individuals experience positive feelings, they may exhibit a heightened inclination toward spontaneous purchasing decisions, driven by a desire to sustain or amplify their current emotional state. Factors such as the excitement of acquiring a new item, the anticipation surrounding its delivery, or the perceived capacity of consumption to elevate one's mood can all contribute to this trend (Al-Romeedy, 2024; Iyer et al., 2020). Nevertheless, the correlation between PEs and IB behaviors is not always linear. Various factors, including the intensity and duration of PEs, as well as individual differences and contextual variables, can modulate the likelihood and magnitude of impulsive purchasing tendencies. For instance, while some individuals may demonstrate heightened susceptibility to IB during periods of positive affect, others may exhibit greater capacity for impulse regulation (Fenton-O'Creevy et al., 2018; Habib and Qayyum, 2018). Additionally, the specific type of PE experienced can shape the IB behavior. For instance, feelings of excitement and anticipation may lead individuals toward more experiential or hedonic purchases, whereas a sense of joy or contentment might drive them toward more practical or utilitarian acquisitions (Ahn and Kwon, 2022; Liu et al., 2022a, 2022b). Similarly, Ahn and Kwon (2022) affirmed that the link between IB tendencies and actual behavior among cruise customers is influenced by both positive and negative emotions. Particularly in the context of livestreaming, customers are enticed by interactions with presenters. This engagement enhances their experience, leading to PEs (Liu et al., 2018). When customers experience PEs, they become more attracted to products and may overestimate their financial capacities and needs, thus increasing the likelihood of IB (Li et al., 2022a, 2022b). Consequently, empirical evidence from previous studies has demonstrated that PEs drive IB in livestreaming contexts (e.g., Gao et al., 2022; Li et al., 2022a, 2022b).

It's essential to recognize that IB, even when triggered by PEs, can result in adverse outcomes for consumers, including financial strain, post-purchase regret, and disruption of long-term financial planning. Therefore, comprehending the intricate dynamics between PEs and IB is critical for both consumers and marketers. Such understanding can guide the development of strategies aimed at promoting more mindful and sustainable purchasing behaviors (Ata and Sezer, 2021; Malani et al., 2024). Hence, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H4: Positive emotions have a positive influence on impulsive buying.

Trust and impulsive buying

The role of consumer TS in IB is a crucial aspect of consumer behavior analysis. TS serves as a cornerstone in the relationship between consumers and brands or retailers, significantly influencing the propensity for impulsive purchasing decisions (Han, 2023). When consumers possess a high level of TS in a brand or retailer, they tend to feel more at ease making spontaneous buying choices. TS fosters confidence in product or service quality, reliability, and the overall shopping experience. Consumers who have TS in a brand are more inclined to engage in unplanned purchases, as they believe the product will meet their expectations and the transaction will be smooth and secure (Darmawan and Gatheru, 2021; Ming et al., 2021). Lavuri (2023) argued that TS play a pivotal role in mitigating risks associated with online shopping, thereby influencing consumer purchasing decisions. Findings by Habib and Qayyum (2018) supported this claim, showing that TS elicited emotional responses in customers, leading to IB behavior. Moreover, Lavuri (2023) and Moreno et al. (2021) provided empirical evidence of a positive association between online TS and IB behavior. Ming et al. (2021) further highlighted the impact of TS on IB within the context of livestreaming.

Conversely, a deficiency in TS can serve as a hindrance to IB. Consumers who harbor skepticism or wariness toward a brand or retailer may exhibit greater caution and thoughtfulness in their purchasing choices, prioritizing thorough assessment over spontaneous urges. Concerns regarding product quality, reliability of delivery, or the general credibility of the brand can contribute to a consumer's hesitance to indulge in IB (Solomon et al., 2012; Zainuddin et al., 2023). It's worth noting that the correlation between consumer TS and IB is not unidirectional. IB decisions can also impact a consumer's TS in a brand or retailer, positively or negatively, contingent on the transaction's outcome and the consumer's overall satisfaction (Darmawan and Gatheru, 2021; Maqsood and Javed, 2019). Based on the previous arguments, the following hypothesis was formulated:

H5: Consumer trust has a positive influence on IB.

The mediating role of positive emotions

When consumers are exposed to visually captivating and emotionally stimulating travel content, it initiates a series of neurochemical reactions that can significantly impact their decision-making processes (Al-Romeedy, 2024). In the realm of CETLS, this surge of emotions can prompt viewers to make impulsive travel bookings and associated purchases, driven by a desire to relive or extend the positive sensations they experienced while interacting with the content (Chen et al., 2023; Yi and Jai, 2020). Additionally, the fear of missing out on a unique opportunity can intensify this impulsive reaction, compelling consumers to take swift action before the chance disappears (Farahat, 2023). Furthermore, the social validation aspect of CEs adds to the emotional resonance of the viewing experience. Witnessing their revered public figures fervently endorse and participate in the travel adventures can evoke a profound longing in viewers to join the same elite, aspirational circle. This feeling of social affirmation and inclusion can intensify impulsive purchasing tendencies, as individuals aspire to mirror the lifestyles and escapades of the admired celebrities (Bastrygina et al., 2024; Meng et al., 2021). Hence, the following hypothesis was formulated:

H6: Positive emotions mediate the relationship between celebrity-endorsed TLS and impulsive buying.

The mediating role of trust

When consumers have a high level of TS in a travel brand or platform, it initiates a series of PEs and cognitive biases that ultimately result in increased impulsive purchasing decisions (Zhang et al., 2022b, 2022c). A key mechanism in this process is the utilization of heuristics, or mental shortcuts, by consumers to facilitate rapid decision-making. When presented with a travel opportunity endorsed by a trusted celebrity, individuals tend to rely on these heuristics, such as social proof or the perceived reputation of the brand, rather than engaging in a more deliberate, analytical decision-making process. This cognitive shortcut fosters a heightened sense of confidence and ease, making consumers more inclined to act on their impulses and make spontaneous travel bookings (Bellur and Sundar, 2014; Farahat, 2023; Fu et al., 2020). The affective dimension of TS also holds considerable sway in stimulating IB behavior. When consumers harbor a robust TS in a travel brand or platform, it can elicit PEs such as feelings of security, dependability, and even excitement. These emotional states can engender a psychological environment that is more conducive to impulsive decision-making, as consumers are less likely to be hindered by apprehension, trepidation, or doubt (Choi and Kim, 2020; Nawaz et al., 2021). As well, the interactive and real-time characteristics of live streaming can heighten the TS-building process. The capability to directly engage with the celebrity endorser and receive instantaneous responses can foster a sense of personal connection and affinity, which can translate into a heightened level of TS in the travel offering being showcased. This TS perception, in turn, can diminish the consumer's perceived risk associated with making an impulsive travel booking, rendering them more inclined to act impulsively (Guo et al., 2021; Yu and Hu, 2020; Xie et al., 2023). On the basis of the aforementioned, the following hypothesis was proposed:

H7: Trust mediates the relationship between celebrity-endorsed TLS and impulsive buying.

Methodology

Sampling and data collection

A quantitative approach was employed. For data gathering, an electronic questionnaire through Google forms was used. Consistent with Jhawar et al. (2023b), participants were conveniently selected from travel-focused communities on prominent social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, and LinkedIn. These platforms were chosen because of their extensive user base and their significance in the tourism and hospitality industry. Convenience sampling was utilized to easily reach the intended audience and enhance the chances of securing their agreement to take part in the research. The aims of the study, the protection of participants’ personal information, and their consent were assured at the beginning of the questionnaire. The information about the study variables was also clarified. It was also highlighted that live streaming is related to tourism and travel. This clarification is intended to ensure that respondents have a comprehensive understanding of the objectives of the study and the relevant concepts being investigated.

To accommodate the diverse demographics of the target sample, which encompassed both Egyptians and foreigners, the questionnaire was created in both Arabic and English. This decision was made to ensure that all participants, irrespective of their linguistic background or nationality, could participate in the study. By providing the questionnaire in both languages, the study aimed to foster inclusivity and accessibility, enabling a wide range of individuals to contribute their perspectives. This approach was implemented with the intention of gathering comprehensive and representative data, thereby enhancing the overall quality and relevance of the study's findings. The call to participate in this study was disseminated across pertinent group pages like TravellerAdvisor, Traveller Experience, Travel Secrets Club, among others. Furthermore, direct messaging was utilized to engage potential participants, and targeted ads were deployed. All participants volunteered and were not compensated in any way.

To verify participants, two screen questions were created. The two screen questions were “Have you ever watched livestreaming on Facebook, Tik Tok, Instagram, Snapchat, travel platforms, and other apps?” and “Have you ever purchased a service that a live streamer sells during a livestreaming?.” If the response to each question was no, the answer was terminated, and the questionnaire was deemed invalid.

The questionnaire link was sent to 1314 individuals through social networking sites during the period from October 2022 to the end of December 2022. 712 responses were obtained, of which 584 were valid (based on the predetermined sample size calculated using G*Power 3.1) (Jhawar et al., 2023b). 36 responses were deemed invalid due to either incomplete answers, with more than 20% of the items left unanswered, or because they displayed static or replicated response patterns (Jhawar et al., 2023a), while there were 92 respondents who answered “no” to the first and second questions (Screen question).

Table 1 reveals that the number of males exceeded half of the sample (n = 338; 57.9%), while 42.1% of the sample were females (n = 246). More than half of the sample ranged from 20 to 40 years old (n = 343; 58.7%). Also, 58.2% of the respondents obtained a bachelor's degree (n = 340), and more than half of the sample are Egyptians (n = 301; 51.5%), while the other respondents are foreigners (n = 283; 48.5%). 45.2% of respondents have an income between 3000 and less than 6000 dollars (n = 264).

Table 1.

Demographics of respondents (N = 584).

Measure	Item	Frequencies	Percentage
Gender	Male	338	57.9%
Gender	Female	246	42.1%
Age	Under 20 years	63	10.8%
	From 20 to 30 years	152	26%
	From 31 to 40 years	191	32.7%
	From 40 to 50 years	109	18.7%
	Over 50 years	69	11.8%
Educational level	Less than bachelor	163	27.9%
	Bachelor	340	58.2%
	Postgraduate	45	7.7%
	Others	36	6.2%
Nationality	Arab nationality	301	51.5%
Nationality	Foreign nationality	283	48.5%
Income	Less than 3000$	152	26%
	From 3000 to less than 6000$	264	45.2%
	From 6000 to less than 8000$	109	18.7%
	From 8000 to less than 10000$	31	5.3%
	Over 10000$	28	4.8%

Measurement

The questionnaire was divided into two sections. The first section had 15 elements concerning latent variables (CETLS, PEs, TS, and IB), and the second section involved 5 questions about the sample profile. CETLS was evaluated with a 3-item scale adopted from Gong and Li (2017). Sample items included “Celebrity endorsement that is the cooperation between celebrities and live streamers makes me feel comfortable, as if I am with a friend”, and “I would often watch, comment, or retweet a celebrity's channel.” PEs were assessed with a 5-item scale developed by Huang et al. (2022). For example, “While watching celebrity in livestreaming, it makes me feel happy here.” TS was evaluated with a 4-item scale of Sun et al. (2019). A sample item of TS is “I believe in the information that online celebrities provide through livestreaming.” Finally, IB was assessed by a 3-item scale adopted from Xiang et al. (2016). Sample items included “While watching celebrity in livestreaming, I often buy things spontaneously”, and “While watching celebrity in livestreaming, sometimes I am a bit reckless about what I buy.” Using a 5-point Likert scale, all questionnaire items were rated.

Common method biases

Prior to conducting further statistical analysis, an assessment was conducted to examine the presence of Common Method Variance (CMV). CMV is a phenomenon that can distort correlations, particularly when cross-sectional data collection methods, such as simultaneous surveys, are used to measure constructs. In this study, two techniques were employed to evaluate CMV: the Harman single factor test and principal component analysis (PCA) (Al-Azab and Al-Romeedy, 2024). The results of the CMV assessment indicate that none of the variables exhibit a dominant factor that accounts for more than 50% of the total variance. Therefore, CMV does not appear to be a significant concern in this particular study.

Measurement model assessment

In terms of convergent validity, the study examined internal consistency reliability (should be > 0.70), composite reliability (should be > 0.70), and average variance extraction (AVE) (should be > 0.5) according to Hair et al. (2021). According to the findings in Table 2, all factor loadings and composite reliability are more than 0.7 for all items. As well, Cronbach's alpha values are more than 0.7, indicating strong scale reliability for the full constructs. All of the extracted variance (AVE) values are more than 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981), showing the highest level of convergent validity. Model fit was performed before testing the hypotheses. The model fit and quality index results meet the standards (see Table 2). The square roots of AVE, according to Hair et al. (2021), should surpass the maximum squared association with any other variable. The square roots of AVE for all variables are bigger than the greatest associations with any other variable, according to Table 3. The HTMT ratio values for all variables were significantly below 0.90. This suggests that the relationships between items across different constructs are weaker compared to the relationships within the same construct, thereby confirming the presence of discriminant validity (Franke and Sarstedt, 2019) (see Table 3). As a result, both convergent and discriminant validity were confirmed (Table 4).

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics, factor loading, α, CR, AVE, and reliability (N = 584).

Construct	Mean	SD	Factor loading	α	CR	AVE	Model fit and quality indices
CETLS	4.33	0.671		0.880	0.927	0.810	Average path coefficient (APC) = 0.243, p < 0.001
CETLS1	4.26	0.751	0.792				Average path coefficient (APC) = 0.243, p < 0.001
CETLS2	4.38	0.741	0.953				Average R-squared (ARS) = 0.158, p < 0.001
CETLS3	4.36	0.752	0.946				Average R-squared (ARS) = 0.158, p < 0.001
PE	3.96	0.781		0.895	0.923	0.705	Average adjusted R-squared (AARS) = 0.153, p < 0.001
PE1	3.98	0.937	0.865				Average adjusted R-squared (AARS) = 0.153, p < 0.001
PE2	4.00	0.947	0.858				Average block VIF (AVIF) = 1.621, acceptable if <= 5, ideally <= 3.3
PE3	3.91	0.969	0.835
PE4	3.87	0.893	0.823				Average full collinearity VIF (AFVIF) = 1.503, acceptable if <= 5, ideally <= 3.3
PE5	4.04	0.904	0.816
TS	3.43	0.933		0.891	0.924	0.753	Tenenhaus GoF (GoF) = 0.338, small >= 0.1, medium >= 0.25, large >= 0.36
TS1	3.55	1.08	0.873
TS2	3.40	1.02	0.876				Simpson's paradox ratio (SPR) = 1.000, acceptable if >= 0.7, ideally = 1
TS3	3.44	1.07	0.871
TS4	3.34	1.12	0.851				R-squared contribution ratio (RSCR) = 1.000, acceptable if >= 0.9, ideally = 1
IB	3.98	0.720		0.707	0.837	0.632
IB1	4.44	0.817	0.736				Statistical suppression ratio (SSR) = 1.000, acceptable if >= 0.7
IB2	3.79	0.909	0.810
IB3	3.70	0.986	0.835				Nonlinear bivariate causality direction ratio (NLBCDR) = 1.000, acceptable if >= 0.7

Table 3.

Discriminant validity (N = 584).

Construct	CETLS	TS	PE	IB
CETLS	(0.900)
TS	0.320	(0.840)
PE	0.164	0.576	(0.868)
IB	0.206	0.517	0.490	(0.795)
HTMT
CETLS
TS	0.577
PE	0.601	0.666
IB	0.676	0.701	0.693

Table 4.

Direct and indirect relationship (N = 584).

Hypotheses	Relationship	Β	SE	CR	p-value	Results
H1	CETLS → IB	0.119	0.058	2.052	0.008	Supported
H2	CETLS → PE	0.331	0.056	5.911	0.000	Supported
H3	CETLS → TS	0.175	0.058	3.017	0.000	Supported
H4	PE → IB	0.289	0.057	5.070	0.000	Supported
H5	TS → IB	0.301	0.057	5.281	0.000	Supported
Mediating effect
H6	CETLS → PE → IB	0.164	0.041	4.000	0.000	Supported
H7	CETLS → TS → IB	0.085	0.042	2.024	0.011	Supported

Results of proposed hypotheses

As seen in table, all hypotheses have been supported. The results demonstrated that CETLS has a significant and positive impact on consumers’ IB (β = 0.119, p < 0.005), supporting H1. H2 Also supported as CETLS affects significantly and positively consumers’ PEs (β = 0.331, p < 0.001). As well, the results highlighted the significant and positive impact of CETLS on consumers’ TS (β = 0.175, p < 0.001), hence H3 is supported. Further, PEs significantly and positively affect IB (β = 0.289, p < 0.001), and TS significantly and positively affects IB as results indicated (β = 0.301, p < 0.001). Therefore, H4 and H5 were supported.

Regarding the mediating roles of PEs and TS in the link between CETLS and IB, the results confirmed that PEs mediate the relationship between CETLS and IB (β = 0.164, p < 0.001). Additionally, the results proved that TS mediates the relationship between CETLS and IB (β = 0.085, p < 0.005). So, H6 and H7 were supported.

Discussion

The objectives of the study were to explore the direct effect of CETLS on PEs, TS and IB. further, it assesses the effect of PEs and TS on IB. finally, the study investigates the mediating role of PEs and TS in the relationship between CETLS and IB. A quantitative method was applied to accomplish the study objectives, using a questionnaire to collect data from Arab and foreign customers (584 responses). The results support the suggested study model and all hypotheses.

The results highlighted the significant and positive effect of CETLS on IB, which means CETLS will increase impulse buying decisions. Endorsing celebrities in traveling livestreaming makes customers attracted to the information provided, and they impulsively buy tourism services, especially if the celebrity has great popularity and credibility (Yu et al., 2022). As mentioned by Yao et al. (2021), customers’ tendency to impulsively buy their trips is related to their viewing of livestreaming or travel experiences of celebrities on a social networking site. Wongkitrungrueng and Assarut (2018) highlighted that customers may be motivated to buy impulsively after hearing and watching the experiences of celebrities and their explanation of the benefits of the products and services they offer in livestreaming.

Likewise, the results depicted that CETLS significantly and positively affects PEs. This result came to agree with the study of Meng et al. (2021) which explained this relationship through the role of celebrities and their compelling personalities that evoke customers’ PEs. Additionally, Sun et al. (2019) verified that endorsing celebrities in travel livestreaming enhances the customers’ PEs through the customers’ feeling of credibility and persuasion. Chuah and Yu (2021) added that the participation of celebrities in livestreaming has a strong emotional impact on viewers.

Moreover, the results demonstrated that CETLS has a significant and positive effect on TS. This means that endorsing celebrities in travel livestreaming supports customer TS. This result is consistent with the study of Qiu et al. (2021), which emphasized the positive impact of endorsing celebrities in travel livestreaming on customer TS. The customer's TS in the product or service that he watches in the livestreaming is affected by the personality of the individual presenting it, along with the method and quality of the presentation (Wongkitrungrueng et al., 2020). There are also some personalities that customers see as wonderful and honest in their opinions in the livestreaming, which was reflected in their TS in the information provided by those personalities (Chen et al., 2021).

Additionally, the results revealed the significant and positive effect of PEs on IB. This indicates that gaining PEs as a result of endorsing celebrities in travel livestreaming increases the impulse buying of customers. This result is consistent with some previous studies such as Gao et al. (2022) and Li et al. (2022b). These studies showed the effective role of PEs in promoting IB of products and services that are displayed in the livestreaming. Lee and Chen (2021) suggest that customers engage in IB due to the dominance of PEs over their behavior. Liu et al. (2022b) and Kang (2020) showed that customers’ engagement in IB is significantly associated with their PEs and feelings spurred by attractive offers and information in the livestreaming.

As well, the results pointed out that TS has a significant and positive effect on IB. This result clarifies that customers IB increase as a result of the increased TS they have when the celebrities participate in the travel livestreaming. This result is in line with the study of Ming et al. (2021) which showed that the IB of products and services is affected by customers’ TS in these products and services. They demonstrated that TS has the ability to remove fears and uncertainty among customers, and thus they are more involved in impulse buying. Also, Lavuri (2023) and Moreno et al. (2021) confirmed the effect of TS in online purchasing on IB. According to Habib and Qayyum (2018), the customer may rush into purchases as a result of absolute TS in the supply of products and services, as well as TS in the bidder.

The results also reported that PEs mediate the relationship between CETLS and IB. This demonstrates that positive customer emotions increase the effect of CETLS on IB. The persuasive and attractive performance of celebrities in livestreaming evokes PEs of customers and makes them more willing to buy what these celebrities offer in the live (Meng et al., 2021). Gao et al. (2022) justified that customers may engage in IB through the PEs supported by celebrities’ participation in a livestreaming.

Finally, the results also indicated that TS mediates the link between CETLS and IB. This reveals that customer TS boosts the effect of CETLS on IB. The participation of celebrities in travel livestreaming positively enhances customer TS (Qiu et al., 2021), and this TS motivates customers to buy impulsively (Moreno et al., 2021). Meng et al. (2021) depicted that the increased TS of customers as a result of endorsing celebrities in travel livestreaming can prompt them to impulsively buy the services that those celebrities are talking about.

Theoretical implications

This study carries significant theoretical implications. The study highlights CETLS as a powerful external stimulus. According to S-O-R theory, such stimuli are crucial in shaping internal states and subsequent behaviors. The findings indicate that celebrity endorsements within livestreaming serve as an effective stimulus, capturing attention, generating interest, and eliciting emotional and cognitive responses from viewers. This underscores the importance of sophisticated and interactive marketing strategies as stimuli that can significantly influence consumer behavior, consistent with the S-O-R framework.

Likewise, the study emphasizes that PEs and consumer TS are essential internal states that mediate the relationship between the external stimulus (celebrity-endorsed livestreaming) and the behavioral response (IB). Within the S-O-R framework, these internal states are vital as they represent the consumer's psychological and emotional processing of the stimulus. The research demonstrates that celebrity endorsements in livestreams generate strong PEs, such as excitement and joy, which increase the likelihood of IB. Additionally, TS in the celebrity and the content being delivered is another critical internal state that promotes IB. TS ensures that consumers feel confident and secure in their purchasing decisions. The findings highlight the importance of addressing both the emotional and cognitive aspects of the consumer experience in marketing strategies, as these internal states are crucial in transforming stimuli into actions.

In the S-O-R framework, internal states triggered by external stimuli result in specific behavioral responses. The study confirms that the PEs and TS fostered by CETLS substantially elevate the likelihood of IB behavior among travelers. This finding supports the S-O-R model by illustrating a clear progression from stimulus, through internal organism states, to response, emphasizing the effectiveness of marketing strategies that leverage emotions and TS to influence consumer behavior.

Further, the study enhances the S-O-R theory by incorporating contemporary digital marketing practices, such as celebrity endorsements in livestreaming, into the traditional stimulus-response framework. This integration shows how modern tourism marketing stimuli can be effectively examined using established psychological theories. The dual mediation model (PEs and TS) adds depth to the S-O-R theory by highlighting the intricate interactions between various internal states. It suggests that consumer responses are typically the outcome of multiple, interacting psychological processes, rather than a single, straightforward pathway.

Finally, the study's focus on travel livestreaming offers a context-specific application of the S-O-R theory, emphasizing how particular types of stimuli (interactive, real-time endorsements) can uniquely affect traveler behavior. This enriches the S-O-R framework by showing its relevance across various marketing contexts and mediums. These theoretical insights offer valuable guidance for tourism and hospitality organizations aiming to navigate the dynamic landscape of celebrity endorsements and live streaming, helping them optimize strategies to drive IB behavior in a sustainable and responsible way.

Practical implications

The results propose several recommendations for the tourism and hospitality sector, which, if applied, can boost PEs, TS, and buying behavior. This study offers insights to design more impactful marketing strategies utilizing celebrity endorsements and livestreaming to influence consumer behavior. A significant finding is the pivotal role of PEs in mediating the influence of celebrity endorsements on IB. Marketers should prioritize crafting emotionally resonant content that connects with viewers. This entails selecting celebrities who possess a strong emotional rapport with their audience and can genuinely express their enthusiasm for the promoted travel experiences. Incorporating elements such as personal anecdotes, interactive Q&A sessions, and behind-the-scenes glimpses can evoke PEs like excitement, joy, and anticipation, thereby increasing the likelihood of impulsive purchases.

Consumer TS serves as another vital mediator highlighted in the study. In order to establish and uphold TS, travel enterprises should carefully select celebrities who possess not just popularity but also credibility and reliability. Transparency is crucial; celebrities should be encouraged to offer sincere reviews and authentic experiences rather than overly rehearsed or promotional content. Moreover, furnishing comprehensive and accurate details about the destinations, accommodations, and activities being endorsed can bolster TS. This entails promptly and honestly addressing any potential audience concerns or inquiries during the livestream.

The interactive aspect of livestreaming presents a distinctive chance to connect with consumers instantaneously. Marketers should capitalize on this by fostering active engagement from the audience. Incorporating elements such as live polls, immediate feedback mechanisms, and interactive games can heighten the liveliness and appeal of the livestream, consequently bolstering PEs and TS. Introducing time-sensitive offers and exclusive promotions during the livestream can instill a sense of urgency and capitalize on viewers’ inclination toward impulsive purchasing behaviors.

Significantly, employing data analytics is imperative for marketers to gain deeper insights into the preferences and behaviors of their target demographic. Through scrutinizing engagement metrics, comments, and purchasing trends throughout livestreams, organizations can customize forthcoming content to more accurately align with the preferences and aspirations of their audience. Offering personalized recommendations and tailored content derived from past interactions can amplify emotional involvement and TS, thereby optimizing the efficacy of marketing initiatives.

Finally, while harnessing PEs and TS to stimulate IB can yield significant results, it's vital to uphold ethical standards. Marketers must guarantee that their tactics don't manipulate or take advantage of consumers. Transparent disclosures regarding promotions and endorsements, safeguarding viewer privacy, and delivering value beyond mere sales pitches are essential components of an ethical approach.

Limitations and future research

The current study has certain limitations that should be handled in future research. First, the current study sample consisted of customers (Egyptians and foreigners) who watch livestreaming through applications such as Facebook, Tik Tok, Instrgram Live, Snapchat, platforms, and other apps. Future studies could address the factors that drive customers to watch travel livestreaming. Future studies can also study the differences between the motives of watching travel livestreaming among Egyptians and foreigners. Second, the study evaluated engaging Arab and foreign customers in IB behaviors resulting from endorsing celebrities in the travel livestreaming. Future studies can compare IB behaviors through endorsing celebrities in the travel livestreaming between Egyptian and foreign customers. Future studies can also compare IB behaviors according to the demographic characteristics of customers, and whether these demographic characteristics can affect their IB decisions. Third, the influence of CETLS on PEs, TS, and IB was explored in this study. Future research should look into the influence of CETLS on different variables including customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, and marketing effectiveness. Fourth, this study investigates the roles of PEs and TS as mediators in the link between CETLS and IB. Further research is needed to investigate the influence of other variables (e.g., organizational reputation, service quality, electronic customer relationship management, etc.) in mediating the link CETLS and IB. Fifth, while the study is based on the S-O-R framework, there is potential for future research to incorporate alternative theoretical perspectives, such as social influence theories or cognitive appraisal theories. Social influence theories can illuminate how factors such as social proof, social norms, and social status conveyed by celebrities in interactive livestreaming shape emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses, including IB. Cognitive appraisal theories can explain how consumers’ evaluations of credibility, authenticity, and personal relevance of travel content drive TS, PEs, and impulsive purchasing decisions. Integrating these theories can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the complex processes underlying consumer behavior in CETLS. Sixth, employing a mixed-methods approach that combines quantitative and qualitative methods, such as surveys, interviews, or focus groups, would contribute to a more holistic comprehension of the complexities associated with the examined relationships. Qualitative research methods can provide valuable insights into the subjective experiences, motivations, and decision-making processes of consumers, complementing the quantitative findings and enriching the overall understanding of the phenomenon.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Bassam Samir Al-Romeedy

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