A balanced time perspective on senior residential tourism: The moderating role of employment status in self-determination mechanism

Abstract

Residential tourism, characterized by extended stays at travel destinations, has gained increasing popularity among seniors. Guided by time perspective theory and self-determination theory, this study examines how a balanced time perspective influences senior travelers’ residential tourism intentions. Survey data were collected from 453 older adults in China. The results reveal that a balanced time perspective is positively associated with higher residential tourism intentions, with perceived social support and meaning in life serving as mediators. Moreover, this effect is significantly stronger for employed seniors than for retired seniors. For employed seniors, the mediating role of meaning in life is particularly pronounced, while for retired seniors, perceived social support plays a more prominent mediating role. These findings offer practical insights for promoting residential tourism through a deeper understanding of seniors’ travel behaviors.

Keywords

Time perspective theory self-determination theory balanced time perspective senior traveler residential tourism employment status

Introduction

The present aging population is growing, and the “silver economy” is experiencing a commensurate rise (Fengler, 2021). While the concept of senior care is undergoing transformation and upgrades, urban resources in certain areas are increasingly mismatched with the size and burgeoning needs of this aging demographic (Plouffe & Kalache, 2010). Senior populations, as a result, are reevaluating their retirement plans, leading to the rise of senior residential tourism (Zhou et al., 2023). Driven by the desire for immersive experiences and a change of living environment, an increasing number of elderly people are pursuing residential tourism, which involves leaving one's permanent residence to live in a tourist destination for an extended period, either continuously or intermittently throughout the year (Liang et al., 2023; Perles-Ribes et al., 2018). However, the research exploring the factors influencing seniors’ residential tourism intention is still in its infancy.

For older adults, perceptions of time often shift as they become increasingly aware that their remaining future time is limited (Losada et al., 2016). This awareness motivates many seniors to pursue residential tourism as a means of achieving a more fulfilling lifestyle, which can satisfy their social and cultural needs, alleviate stress, and enhance psychological wellbeing (Hannonen, 2018). Although prior studies suggest that individuals with a balanced time perspective, the ideal type of time perspective, are more adaptive to changing environments, the concept of “balance” has long been debated (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014). Early scholars questioned whether a perfectly balanced profile across all temporal dimensions is realistically attainable and whether such balance should be considered universally optimal (Boniwell et al., 2010). Responding to these concerns, contemporary research reconceptualizes balanced time perspective not as a fixed ideal but as a continuum reflecting individuals’ relative proximity to empirically derived optimal temporal levels (Jankowski et al., 2020). This continuum-based approach, operationalized through the widely used deviation from balanced time perspective, now represents the dominant paradigm and has been validated across cultures and age groups, including among older adults (Rönnlund & Carelli, 2018).

While subjective time perception has been shown to influence both general and senior tourists’ short-term travel intentions, its role in shaping seniors’ decisions about residential tourism remains unclear (Leung et al., 2025; Lu et al., 2016; Pearce, 2020). Compared with short-term tourism, residential tourism is more complicated and multifaceted, since it requires decision making that balances the long-term living arrangements and ongoing personal or family obligations (McWatters, 2008). Consequently, it is important to investigate whether a balanced time perspective functions similarly, or perhaps more critically, in the context of senior residential tourism. According to existing research, having a balanced time perspective fosters psychological wellbeing and emotional intelligence, which can enhance one's ability to recognize social support and cultivate a stronger sense of meaning in life (Holman & Zimbardo, 2009; Stolarski et al., 2020). The perceptions of social support and meaning in life are also important considerations when choosing a travel destination (Martínez-López et al., 2023; Oliveira et al., 2018). Based on this logic, the relationship between seniors’ time perspectives and their tendency to engage in residential tourism may be mediated by perceived social support and meaning in life, two important but often overlooked factors.

To address these research gaps, the present study draws on time perspective theory and self-determination theory to explore how a balanced time perspective influences seniors’ residential tourism intentions through perceived social support and meaning in life. Additionally, guided by a dynamic lifespan view, this study investigates the moderating effect of employment status by comparing employed and retired seniors, recognizing that employment status is a key contextual factor shaping behaviors (Leung et al., 2021). The current study adds to the body of previous work by integrating multiple theories to deepen our understanding of older adults’ travel motivations and behaviors. The findings offer practical insights for tourism practitioners to segment the senior residential travel market and employ targeted marketing strategies to encourage residential tourism among older travelers.

Literature review and hypothesis development

Senior traveler and residential tourism

An increasingly share of the tourism industry is made up of older travelers (Stončikaitė, 2022). External variables like the longer lifespan, better health, and greater financial independence are contributing to this trend (Patterson & Balderas-Cejudo, 2023). Additionally, senior tourists are often motivated by internal desires, such as seeking knowledge, escaping routines, and socializing (Nielsen, 2014). The elderly prefer convenient and cozy destinations that offer rich experiences (Alén et al., 2016; Patterson & Balderas-Cejudo, 2023). Besides, previous research has shown that travel improves older people's psychological and emotional wellbeing, further leading to increased life satisfaction and the formation of long-lasting memories (Li et al., 2024; Sie et al., 2021). Even with the growing number of senior tourism studies, there is still a research gap in understanding how seniors engage in residential tourism (Lyu et al., 2021).

Residential tourism, as defined by Hao and Xiao (2021), is “the permanent or semi-permanent migration to a destination to seek a better quality of life, and consists of various inter-connected and heterogeneous types of mobility located between the two poles of tourism and migration along a mobility spectrum” (p. 2). Although residential tourism may appear similar to timeshare schemes or holiday homes, it represents a fundamentally different mobility pattern. Timeshare typically involves legally predetermined ownership or usage rights for specific weeks in a property, whereas holiday homes are fully owned second residences used sporadically for short, recreational stays (Casado-Diaz, 2012). Residential tourism, by contrast, is characterized by extended, flexible, and often repeated stays that are motivated by lifestyle improvement, long-term cultural and social integration, and ongoing engagement with the destination rather than by fixed ownership structures or short-term vacation use (Hao & Xiao, 2021).

Importantly, residential tourists encompass individuals with diverse lengths of stay in the destination, from seasonal visitors to semipermanent residents (several months or more), making duration less central to its definition than the depth and continuity of engagement with the destination (Casado-Diaz, 2012). Such engagement may involve property ownership, regular return visits, or immersion in local cultural and social networks (Hannonen, 2018). This form of tourism mobility provides seniors with instant opportunities to enjoy a high-quality lifestyle at a relatively lower cost, foster their social and cultural connections with local community, escape the urban stresses, and enhance emotional wellbeing (Hannonen, 2018). In essence, residential tourism aligns closely with old travelers’ desire for meaningful engagement and personal enrichment (Oliveira et al., 2018), which is why seniors increasingly constitute a key segment within this tourism phenomenon (Liang et al., 2023).

Time perspective theory

Time perspective, defined by Zimbardo and Boyd (2008), refers to “the often unconscious personal attitude that each of us holds toward time and the process whereby the continual flow of existence is bundled into time categories that help to give order, coherence, and meaning to our lives” (p. 51). In addition to affecting the encoding, storing, and recalling one's experiences, time perspective serves as a relative consistent trait that shape one's expectations, goals, cognition, and behaviors (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014). Based on a series of empirical findings, five dimensions of time perspective were identified, namely the past-positive, past-negative, present-hedonistic, present-fatalistic, and future (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014). As a dynamic process, people might devote their attention to a particular time frame, and in turn develop preferences for emphasizing one timeframe over the others (Stolarski et al., 2020). However, these tendencies toward certain time dimensions limit individuals’ ability to fully engage with diverse life situations (Stolarski et al., 2020), which highlights the importance of a balanced time perspective for optimal functioning and adaptability (Boniwell et al., 2010). The most efficient way to utilize time is to achieve a psychological balance in time-perspective, which is also considered as the optimum state in the time perspective (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014). According to Zimbardo and Boyd (2008), people with balanced time perspective tend to be low on the past negative and present fatalistic, and moderate to high on the past positive, present hedonistic, and future time perspectives. Rather than being trapped in any particular dimension of past, present, or future, individuals with balanced time perspective can freely switch between time dimensions based on diverse demands, needs, and values (Jankowski et al., 2020).

Time perspective theory has been increasingly applied in tourism research to explain individual differences in travel intentions and behaviors. Most existing studies concentrated on studying the impacts of future time perspective on one's travel motivations. Study results consistently indicated that individuals with a strong future orientation have a high likelihood to participate in sustainable tourism (Doran et al., 2017), ecotourism (Pham & Khanh, 2021; Luong & Nguyen, 2025), and outbound or leisure travel (García & Ruiz, 2015; Lu et al., 2016). Previous studies of senior tourism (e.g., Kang et al., 2023; Lu et al., 2016) also found that future time perspectives exert similar effects on seniors. However, the tourism academia paid very little attention to study the impacts of other time perspectives, including the balanced time perspective. Among the few studies to address it, García and Ruiz (2015) found that individuals’ balanced time perspective and their meaningful leisure participation are positively correlated. But their study focused on a general adult population in Spain. However, how a balanced time perspective might shape seniors’ travel decisions is still unexplored, especially for older adults considering long-term residential tourism.

Balanced time perspective enables people to easily adapt to the changing external environments (Boniwell et al., 2010). Therefore, it was demonstrated that a balanced time perspective is strongly associated with improved mental and physiological health (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2015), life satisfaction (Webster et al., 2021), and subjective wellbeing (Zhang et al., 2013). Executive ability and general intelligence are higher in people with a more balanced time perspective, enabling them to complete cognitive tasks more effectively (Zajenkowski et al., 2016). It has also been found that seniors who possess greater executive and planning skills are more likely to seek meaningful life experiences through internal resources, such as time, effort, and abilities and to adopt a lifestyle of residential tourism (O’Reilly, 2007). In addition, individuals with relatively high balanced time perspective tend to be calmer, more optimistic, and proactive when solving problems (Stolarski et al., 2020). Compared with those who are ill-balanced in time perspective, they are more open-minded and prefer to experience novel and diverse cultures and destinations (Lyu et al., 2021). Therefore, we assume elderly people with a stronger balanced time perspective are more willing to embrace residential tourism as a lifestyle.

Although early conceptualizations described a balanced time perspective as an idealized and rarely attainable end state, contemporary research increasingly treats it as a flexible continuum rather than a perfectly achieved equilibrium (Boniwell et al., 2010; Stolarski et al., 2020). Critics have questioned whether equal emphasis across all five temporal dimensions is either realistic or universally adaptive, arguing that different life stages and cultural contexts naturally privilege certain time orientations, for example, stronger future focus during career-building years or heightened past-positive reflection in later adulthood (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2015; Webster et al., 2021). These critiques highlight that “balance” should be understood as optimal alignment rather than literal symmetry. The deviation from balanced time perspective (DBTP) addresses these concerns by assessing an individual's distance from empirically derived optimal temporal levels, thus avoiding the assumption that all dimensions must be equally weighted (Stolarski et al., 2020). Lower DBTP scores consistently predict greater wellbeing, cognitive flexibility, and adaptive behavior across cultures and age groups, including among older adults, supporting its validity as a practical operationalization of temporal balance (Rönnlund & Carelli, 2018; Zhang et al., 2013). Given its accuracy and cross-cultural applicability, DBTP has become the most widely used method for assessing balanced time perspective in psychological research (Zhang et al., 2013).

To measure balanced time perspective, Stolarski et al. (2011) proposed the DBTP method, which computes an individual's distance from the ideal set of time perspective values. The DBTP approach has become widely adopted as a result of its high accuracy and utility in cross-cultural and psychological research (Zhang et al., 2013). In this study, the deviation method will be used to assess balanced time perspective. According to a study by Mooney et al. (2017), DBTP is significantly correlated to seniors’ depression, anxiety, stress, and negative mood while having a negative influence on their retirement plans and positive mood. Therefore, we also argue that senior people with an imbalanced or ill-balanced time perspective are likely to have a lower intention toward residential tourism.

H1:

Senior travelers with an optimally balanced time perspective show higher residential tourism intentions. In other words, senior travelers with an ill-balanced time perspective (DBTP) show lower residential tourism intentions.

Self-determination theory

To better explain why seniors with a balanced time perspective are more inclined toward residential tourism, this study integrates time perspective theory with self-determination theory. Whereas time perspective theory primarily describes how individuals cognitively organize and value past, present, and future experiences (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014), self-determination theory explains the motivational drivers of human behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1985). In self-determination theory, people's motivation to act is driven by three fundamental psychological needs: autonomy, relatedness, and competence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In particular, autonomy refers to a feeling of having controls of their own goals and behaviors, relatedness is the need for emotional connectedness and meaningful relationships, and competence indicates the need of being capable in master tasks and achieves a sense of efficacy (Van den Broeck et al., 2016). The fulfillment of these psychological needs can enhance a person's wellbeing, interest, confidence, and creativity, as well as their motivation and performance (Martela & Sheldon, 2019; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Alternatively, if these needs are not met, individuals become disinterested, unhappy, and unable to control their motivations (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Self-determination theory offers an empirically supported framework for exploring the motives and behaviors of tourists. For instance, Buzinde's (2020) study emphasized the applicability of self-determination theory to spiritual tourism and showed that meeting psychological needs while traveling can effectively improve one's wellbeing. Similarly, Lin et al. (2022) apply the theory to examine tourist-to-tourist interactions and demonstrate that satisfaction of needs fosters tourist engagement. Self-determination theory has also been used to study hotel and tourism employees. According to Lee et al. (2015), hotel employees’ job satisfaction and organizational commitment are improved when their needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are fulfilled. Gatling et al. (2016) found that satisfying psychological needs has a positive impact on hospitality supervisors’ work attitudes. Nevertheless, limited tourism research applies this theory to study senior residential tourism. Since elderly travelers prioritize autonomy, competence, and relatedness during their travels (Sie et al., 2021), self-determination theory could be applied to the senior residential tourism setting.

Integrating time perspective theory and self-determination theory, this study proposes that a balanced time perspective fosters the psychological readiness necessary for fulfilling core psychological needs. This readiness is operationalized via perceived social support, which satisfies relatedness, and meaning in life, which satisfies autonomy and competence (Hooker et al., 2020; Martínez-López et al., 2023). Meeting these needs, in turn, increases intrinsic motivation to pursue a meaningful, long-term change such as residential tourism (Liang et al., 2023). This integrative approach explains not only whether temporal balance affects travel decisions, but also how and why temporal balance ultimately translates into the decision to pursue extended-stay residential tourism.

A few studies have linked time perspective theory and self-determination theory, especially in fields like education and health (e.g., De Bilde et al., 2011; Wininger & DeSena, 2012). Besides, the focus of these studies has largely remained on future time perspective (e.g., Lens et al., 2012). In the tourism industry, time perspective theory and self-determination theory are usually used separately. The current study fills this research gap by combining these two theories to offer a new perspective to explain senior travelers’ intention to engage in residential tourism.

Perceived social support

Within the framework of self-determination theory, relatedness is recognized as a fundamental psychological need that drives individuals’ motivation (Li & Shi, 2022). Perceived social support, a subjective sense of being respected, supported, and cared for by others, plays a central role in fulfilling this need (Martínez-López et al., 2023). In the context of residential tourism, senior travelers leave familiar environments for extended stays in new settings (Liang et al., 2023). As older adults often experience diminished physical abilities and increased reliance on external support, perceived social support is particularly vital for this age group (Salarvand et al., 2023). A socially supportive environment in which seniors feel they can depend on others in case of emergencies or difficulties can substantially reduce uncertainties, thereby facilitating decision making about residential tourism (O'Reilly, 2007). Empirical evidence underscores this importance: seniors who perceive high levels of social support are more inclined to overcome mobility, health, or interpersonal constraints, ultimately increasing their travel intentions (Chen et al., 2021).

Additionally, research shows that a balanced time perspective positively correlates with psychological wellbeing and emotional intelligence (Stolarski et al., 2020), which can further enhance individuals’ ability to engage socially and recognize support from their network (Holman & Zimbardo, 2009). In the context of residential tourism, seniors with a balanced time perspective may be more open to forming or strengthening social ties, thus reinforcing their sense of relatedness and willingness to travel. Consequently, perceived social support functions as a critical enabler of residential travel intentions, especially among older adults in need of strong interpersonal connections and reliable assistance structures. Therefore, this study hypothesizes that:

H2:

Perceived social support mediates the relationship between balanced time perspective (DBTP) and residential tourism intentions of senior travelers.

Meaning in life

Meaning in life refers to an individual's belief that their existence is significant and worthwhile (Steger et al., 2006). According to self-determination theory, meaning in life enhances the pursuit or fulfillment of autonomy and competence—two core psychological needs that, when satisfied, promote the adoption of new or challenging behaviors (Hooker et al., 2020). Having a strong sense of life meaning instills self-awareness, self-worth, and motivation for personal growth (Martela & Steger, 2016). In the realm of residential tourism, older adults who perceive their lives as meaningful may be more willing to engage in activities that exercise autonomy, such as deciding on travel arrangements independently, and competence, such as overcoming discomfort and adapting to new environments (Liang et al., 2023; Oliveira et al., 2018).

Prior studies indicate that a balanced time perspective is also favorably associated with life meaning (Webster et al., 2021). Individuals who effectively integrate past, present, and future orientations tend to utilize resources more efficiently (Rönnlund & Carelli, 2018) and maintain a positive outlook on life (Stolarski et al., 2020). By valuing their past experiences, savoring the present, and anticipating a hopeful future, they naturally seek deeper meaning in life (Rönnlund & Carelli, 2018). These positive evaluations of the past and future life itself motivate people to seek the meaning in their life (Martela & Steger, 2016). This study thus posits that meaning in life, anchored in autonomy and competence, further motivates senior travelers to pursue residential tourism. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:

H3:

Meaning in life mediates the relationship between balanced time perspective (DBTP) and residential tourism intentions of senior travelers.

A dynamic lifespan view: the moderation role of employment

A dynamic lifespan perspective on self-determination theory posits that although all three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—remain important throughout an individual's life, their relative salience can shift over time (Ryan & La Guardia, 2000). Employment status is regarded as one of the most significant markers of this role transition in later life, as moving from full-time work to retirement fundamentally reconfigures one's daily schedule, social networks, and sources of meaning and competence (Donovan & Blazer, 2020; Stenling et al., 2021). It is important to note that employment for older adults is not monolithic, which encompasses a wide range of statuses, including full-time, part-time, casual, and self-employed work (Zhong et al., 2023). Similarly, the satisfaction of these needs evolves as one transitions through various life stages, such as from young adulthood to parenthood and into employment (Henning et al., 2019). For instance, Stenling et al. (2021) found that satisfaction of the autonomy need increases with the retirement transition, whereas competence and relatedness remain relatively stable. However, gerontological research has yet to arrive at a consensus regarding which of these three needs most strongly impacts seniors’ wellbeing after retirement, with studies producing varying findings (Ferrand et al., 2014; Henning et al., 2019; Vanhove-Meriaux et al., 2018). This indicates a need for further investigation into the dynamic interplay of basic needs among older adults.

Building on this perspective, it becomes crucial to identify contextual factors that may shape how seniors fulfill these needs. Driven by reasons like economic pressures and increased life expectancy, there is a noticeable trend that individuals stay in the workforce much longer (Zhong et al., 2023). For example, in the EU, the expected duration of working life rose 4.1 years between 2002 and 2022 (World Economic Forum, 2024). Similarly, US Bureau of Labor Statistics predict that adults ages 65 and older are projected to be 8.6% of the labor force in 2032, up from 6.6% in 2022 (Pew Research Center, 2023). In the tourism field, employment status has been identified as a key factor influencing travel behaviors (Leung et al., 2021). Employed seniors often remain active, stay informed through continuous skill acquisition, and maintain extensive social networks (Luenam & Dejprasert, 2022). Nonetheless, work-related time constraints and stress can limit their capacity to participate in travel or leisure activities (Kleiber et al., 2008). Within the residential tourism context, employed seniors may use extended stays strategically to make the most of limited free time and decompress from job pressures (Hao & Xiao, 2021).

Conversely, retirees benefit from greater freedom and fewer work obligations, making longer or more frequent trips more feasible (Diekmann et al., 2020). They may view residential tourism as a desirable lifestyle option rather than a necessity (Stončikaitė, 2022). Indeed, the enhanced accessibility of residential tourism for retirees has long been noted (Casado-Diaz, 1999). Taken together, these observations suggest that employment status is a critical moderator for senior residential tourism. Accordingly, we posit that the impact of psychological needs, as proposed by self-determination theory, will vary depending on employment status. Therefore, employed and retired seniors may exhibit distinct motivations and behaviors regarding residential tourism. The following hypothesis is thus formulated:

H4:

The proposed relationships are different between senior travelers who are still employed and those who retired.

H4a:

The relationships between balanced time perspective (DBTP) and residential tourism intentions are different between employed seniors and retired seniors.

H4b:

The mediation effects of perceived social support are different between employed seniors and retired seniors.

H4c:

The mediation effects of meaning in lift are different between employed seniors and retired seniors.

Methodology

Research design and sampling

The study employed an online survey targeting older Chinese residents. Combining the senior age cutoff used in tourism literature (Leung et al., 2025) with the retirement ages in China, this research defined older adults as Chinese residents aged 55 years or above. In this study, we focus on Chinese seniors aged 55 to 75 years, often referred to in the literature as “young seniors” (e.g. Cohen-Mansfield et al., 2013; Lee & Bowes, 2016). We emphasized this subgroup because they are generally more active, healthier, and more flexible in their lifestyle choices compared to older seniors, making them an increasingly important demographic driving residential tourism trends. And a screening question was included to ensure that all respondents had travel experience within the past 6 months. Data were collected from August to September 2023 through Credamo (www.credamo.world), a crowdsourcing platform similar to MTurk. While Credamo provides a convenient and efficient platform for recruiting diverse participants, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations associated with using online survey platforms, such as potential biases in respondent self-selection, limited control over participants’ conditions during survey, and the possibility that panelists may differ from the general population (Wright, 2005). Each participant received 10 RMB ($1.38 USD) for their participation. To mitigate potential survey fatigue resulting from the integration of multiple validated scales, the questionnaire was carefully designed with clear instructions, concise wording, and a logical flow. The total survey length was kept within a manageable range, with an average completion time of 22.3 minutes. While Revilla and Ochoa (2017) recommended 10 to 20 minutes as the ideal duration for online surveys, Yan and Tourangeau (2008) noted that older respondents typically require more time to complete surveys than younger participants, which helps contextualize the slightly extended duration in this study. A total of 612 responses were collected, with respondents who failed attention check questions, completed the survey in an unreasonably short time, or exhibited repetitive response patterns excluded from further analysis. This resulted in a final dataset of 453 valid questionnaires.

Table 1 shows the demographic profile of the final sample. The final sample showed an almost even distribution between men (53.8%) and women (46.2%). In terms of age, 66.0% of participants were between 55 and 65 years old, followed by 34.0% between 66 and 75 years old. Regarding educational attainment, 34.0% of respondents held an associate degree, followed by 29.6% with a high school diploma and 23.8% with a bachelor's degree. More than half of the participants (55.2%) were retired, while 44.8% were still employed. Nearly half of the respondents reported an annual income exceeding 67,000 RMB ($9273 USD). For context, the average annual income for retired salaried employees in China was 39,912 RMB ($5532 USD) (Liu, 2023), while the average annual salary for employed workers was 114,029 RMB ($15,946 USD) (Huld, 2023). Therefore, the participants’ income levels were representative of this age group.

Table 1.

Demographics (N = 453).

Demographic variables	Categorical indicators	Frequency	Percentage
Gender	Male	244	53.8
	Female	209	46.2
Age	55–65	299	66.0
	66–75	154	34.0
Annual income (RMB)	≤20000	12	2.6
	20001∼40000	97	21.4
	40001∼67000	127	28.0
	≥67000	217	48.0
Education	Below high school	29	6.4
	High school diploma	134	29.6
	Associate degree	154	34.0
	Bachelor's degree	108	23.8
	Graduate degree	28	6.2
Employment	Employed	203	44.8
	Retired	250	55.2

Measurement scale

All measurement scale items were sourced from existing literature. The revised Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (Li et al., 2023), which has demonstrated reliability and validity within Chinese samples, was used to measure a balanced time perspective. The revised inventory comprises 25 items across five dimensions: past positive, past negative, present hedonistic, present fatalistic, and future. The DBTP method was applied to calculate the extent of imbalance in participants’ time perspectives using the formula below (Jankowski et al., 2020; Stolarski et al., 2011):

B T P = \sqrt{{(o P N - e P N)}^{2} + {(o P P - e P P)}^{2} + {(o P F - e P F)}^{2} + {(o P H - e P H)}^{2} + {(o F - e F)}^{2}}

In this formula, ePN, ePP, ePF, ePH, and eF represent the actual scores of the past negative, past positive, present fatalistic, present hedonistic, and future dimensions, respectively, while oPN, ePP, ePF, ePH, and eF denote the optimal critical values for each dimension. Based on Jankowski et al. (2020), this study uses the following optimal values: oPN = 1, oPP = 5, oPF = 1, oPH = 3.4, and oF = 5. Lower DBTP scores indicate a higher level of balance. The smaller the DBTP value is the closer the subject's temporal insight is to an ideally balanced form (Stolarski et al., 2011).

Perceived social support was evaluated using the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS, Zimet et al., 1988), which consists of 12 items across three dimensions: family, friends, and significant others. The Meaning in Life Questionnaire (MLQ; Steger et al., 2006), containing nine items split into two dimensions—presence and search—was used to measure the meaning of life. The residential tourism intention scale was adapted from Leung et al.'s (2025) senior travel intention scale and Hao and Xiao's (2021) definition of residential tourism. All items were rated on a five-point Likert scale.

Data analysis

The data were initially cleaned using SPSS. To assess common method bias, Harman's single-factor test was conducted, revealing that the first factor accounted for only 13.48% of the total variance, which is well below the 50% threshold. This result indicates that common method bias was not a concern in this dataset. Moreover, the variance inflation factor (VIF) values for all latent variables in the model were all less than 3.3, again indicating that the model was free of the common method bias (Kock, 2017). Subsequently, PLS-SEM (Partial Least Squares - Structural Equation Modeling) was utilized to evaluate the measurement model's validity and reliability and to test the proposed hypotheses H1 to H3. Last, based on the participants’ employment status, the full sample was split into two subsets: seniors who were still employed (N = 203) and seniors who had retired (N = 250). PLS-MGA (Partial Least Squares - Multi-Group Analysis) was conducted to compare the path coefficients between the two groups and test H4 (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Proposed research model.

Results

Measurement model results

The measurement model was tested as a second-order model with perceived social support and meaning in life as higher-order constructs. As shown in Table 2, the convergent validity of all first-order constructs—past positive, past negative, present hedonistic, present fatalistic, future, family, friends, significant others, presence, search, and residential tourism intention was supported as all factor loadings over 0.708 and the average variance extracted (AVE) values all above 0.5 (Hair et al., 2019). Reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability (CR) coefficients. Both measures for all constructs were greater than the cutoff value 0.7, indicating good internal consistency (Hair et al., 2019).

Table 2.

Measurement validity and reliability.

Variable / measurement items	Outer loading	AVE	Cronbach's α	CR
Balanced time perspective Past positive		0.717	0.938	0.938
Familiar childhood images, sounds, and smells often bring back fond memories	0.837
Remembering the past makes me happy	0.859
On the whole, my memories of my past life contain more good things than bad	0.830
I like the good things that happened in the past	0.875
Memories of good times often come to my mind	0.837
I miss my childhood	0.840
Past negative		0.704	0.934	0.943
Painful experiences in the past recur in my mind	0.812
There are too many unpleasant memories from the past that I don't want to think about	0.852
I wish I hadn't made those mistakes in the past	0.789
I find it hard to forget those unpleasant sights of my youth	0.864
I often think of those bad things that used to happen to me	0.846
I often think about the good things that I missed out on in life	0.841
Most things don't work out the way I want them to	0.866
Present hedonistic		0.711	0.908	0.908
I do things on impulse	0.841
I make decisions on impulse	0.871
I find myself getting carried away when I'm excited	0.844
I often follow my feelings instead of thinking rationally	0.816
Present fatalistic		0.729	0.855	0.890
My life path is subject to forces beyond my control	0.887
I see no point in worrying about the future because you are simply powerless	0.852
It is impossible to plan for the future because of the vagaries of current events	0.821
Future		0.732	0.925	0.932
I always fulfill my promises to friends and superiors on time	0.864
When I want to accomplish something, I set goals and consider specific ways to reach them	0.870
I will do things that are due tomorrow as well as other necessary work before I play tonight	0.833
I can persevere with difficult, boring tasks as long as they help me to progress	0.839
I am usually able to complete my program on time in a step-by-step manner	0.870
Perceived social support Family		0.690	0.910	0.899
My family really tries to help me	0.841
I get the emotional help and support I need from my family	0.814
I can talk about my problems with my family	0.837
My family is willing to help me make decisions	0.829
Friends		0.701	0.902	0.903
My friends really try to help me	0.823
I can count on my friends when things go wrong	0.841
I have friends with whom I can share my joys and sorrows	0.839
I can talk about my problems with my friends	0.845
Significant others		0.702	0.903	0.904
There is a special person who is around when I am in need	0.862
There is a special person with whom I can share my joys and sorrows	0.838
I have a special person who is a real source of comfort to me	0.822
There is a special person in my life who cares about my feelings	0.829
Meaning in life Presence		0.725	0.899	0.913
I understand my life's meaning	0.859
My life has a clear sense of purpose	0.832
I have a good sense of what makes my life meaningful	0.890
My life has no clear purpose (reverse-coded)	0.822
Search		0.717	0.935	0.927
I am looking for something that makes my life feel meaningful	0.893
I am always looking to find my life's purpose	0.816
I am always searching for something that makes my life feel significant	0.853
I am seeking a purpose or mission for my life	0.817
I am searching for meaning in my life	0.852
Residential tourism intention		0.739	0.886	0.894
I am interested in living in a different city or village for a long time and experiencing local life	0.817
I am willing to move to another place to live permanently or seasonally to improve my quality of life	0.870
If conditions permit, I would like to spend my later years in a place with beautiful scenery and comfortable environment	0.890

AVE: average variance extracted; CR: composite reliability.

Both Fornell–Larcker criterion and hetero-trait mono-trait ratio (HTMT) methods were used to evaluate the discriminant validity of the model. The square root of the AVE value was higher than its highest correlation with other variables, and HTMT values were lower than the threshold value of 0.85, both indicating good discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2019).

Structural model results

The bootstrap method of PLS-SEM was employed to test the proposed model using the full sample. The standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) of the structural model was 0.076, lower than the cut-off value of 0.08, suggesting a good model fit (Hair et al., 2019). The R² value for the dependent variable—residential tourism intention—was 0.847, indicating a high level of prediction accuracy. Figure 2 visualizes the path coefficients as the structural model results. The results showed a significant negative relationship between deviation from balanced time perspective and residential tourism intention (β=−0.176, p < 0.001), indicating that seniors whose time perspectives are out of balance are less likely to pursue residential tourism. Thus, H1 was supported.

Figure 2.

Path analysis results.

The indirect effects in the structural model results were used to test the mediation hypotheses H2 and H3 (Table 3). The results demonstrated that perceived social support significantly mediated the relationship between balanced time perspective and residential tourism intention (β=−0.172, p < 0.001), supporting H2. Additionally, meaning in life also significantly mediated the relationship between balanced time perspective and residential tourism intention (β=−0.058, p < 0.001), supporting H3. In order words, seniors with less balanced time perspectives perceive lower levels of social support and meaning in life, which leads to reduced residential tourism intentions.

Table 3.

Results of mediating effects.

Hypothesis	β	t	p	95% CI
H2. Deviation from balanced time perspective → Perceived social support → Residential tourism intention	−0.172	9.896	0.000	[−0.200, −0.143]
H3. Deviation from balanced time perspective → Meaning in life → Residential tourism intention	−0.058	3.798	0.000	[−0.084, −0.034]

Multigroup analysis

PLS-MGA and permutation tests were conducted to compare the hypothesized relationships between retired and employed seniors to test H4. The results of the multigroup analysis are presented in Figure 3 and Table 4. As shown in Figure 3, the path models for both groups showed similar significance levels of path coefficients as the full-sample model. Both retired and employed seniors whose time perspectives are out of balance are less likely to pursue residential tourism and this relationship is mediated by perceived social support and meaning in life.

Figure 3.

Multigroup path models by employment status.

Table 4.

Multigroup comparison test results.

Hypothesis	Difference (employed-retired）	p
H4a. Deviation from balanced time perspective → Residential tourism intention	−0.130	0.002
H4b. Deviation from balanced time perspective → Perceived social support → Residential tourism intention	0.140	0.000
H4c. Deviation from balanced time perspective → Meaning in life → Residential tourism intention	−0.088	0.009

However, the permutation test results revealed three significant differences in path coefficients between the two groups, supporting H4. As shown in Table 4, the negative effect of ill-balanced time perspective on residential tourism intention was significantly stronger for employed seniors than for retired seniors. Regarding the mediation mechanism, the mediation effect of meaning in life was more pronounced for employed seniors, while the mediation effect of perceived social support was stronger for retired seniors.

Discussion and implications

General discussion

Grounded in time perspective theory and self-determination theory, this study explores the relationship between balanced time perspective and residential tourism intention of senior travelers and the underlying mechanism. Seniors often prioritize comfort, social connectedness, emotional security, and opportunities for self-reflection or purpose, making their travel motivations and constraints qualitatively distinct from other age groups (Sie et al., 2021; Li et al., 2024). Compared to short-term tourism, which is more commonly studied among seniors, residential tourism reflects not only leisure but also broader life-design choices, making seniors a theoretically rich population for examining extended-stay travel.

The study has several significant findings. First, balanced time perspective shows a significant positive effect on residential tourism intentions among older adults, thereby supporting time perspective theory. This result directly reflects the study’s objective of explaining how temporal cognition shapes extended-stay travel decisions. Seniors with an optimally balanced time perspective can effectively switch between different time horizons, reflecting positively on their past, enjoying the present moment, and focusing on future goals (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014). Such temporal integration functions as a psychological resource that enhances both emotional resilience and strategic planning, capabilities that are particularly important for decisions involving lifestyle relocation or prolonged stays. This finding is consistent with Lu et al.'s (2016), who demonstrated the significant positive effects of both present- and future-time perspectives on seniors’ travel intentions. Furthermore, it aligns with broader research on balanced time perspectives, which suggests that individuals with a higher degree of balance (v.s. less balance) are more inclined toward sociability and physical fitness and demonstrate greater levels of subjective wellbeing (Boniwell et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2013). Extending prior work, this study suggests that balanced time perspective is not merely associated with wellbeing but also operates as a decision-enabling capability that supports complex, future-oriented lifestyle choices such as residential tourism. For seniors, these qualities may translate into a stronger motivation to engage in residential tourism, as such activities often provide opportunities for social interaction, physical activity, and meaningful experiences that align with their balanced approach to life. However, it is also important to note that the positive influence of a balanced time perspective may be less applicable to older adults experiencing cognitive decline, such as those in various stages of dementia, who may face challenges in maintaining coherent temporal orientation and psychological adaptability (Gómez-Soria et al., 2021).

Second, both perceived social support and meaning in life significantly mediate the relationship between balanced time perspective and residential tourism intention. These findings are closely tied to self-determination theory, which emphasizes the importance of relatedness, autonomy, and competence in motivating behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1985). More importantly, the mediation results provide conceptual insight into how balanced time perspective translates into behavioral intention, by strengthening seniors’ psychological need fulfillment. This is consistent with Holman and Zimbardo (2009), who observed a positive link between balanced time perspective and social support, and with Chen et al. (2021), who found that social support helps seniors overcome interpersonal constraints and thereby increases their travel intentions. Likewise, the mediating role of meaning in life reflects both autonomy and competence: seniors feel competent and autonomous in creating meanings in life are more likely to travel. It resonates with Lu et al. (2016), who found that self-fulfillment and knowledge enhancement—elements of meaning—serve as significant mediators in the relationship between present- and future-time perspectives and seniors’ travel intentions. Hence, seniors with a balanced time perspective not only feel well-supported by their social network but also pursue self-driven goals that enhance their sense of meaning, ultimately boosting their motivation for residential tourism. Collectively, the results reinforce the central proposition of time perspective theory: the flexible integration of past, present, and future orientations enhances individuals’ adaptive capacity. In the context of senior tourism, such temporal balance appears particularly critical for navigating complex, long-term mobility choices rather than short-term travel consumption (Zimbardo & Boyd, 2014; Stolarski et al., 2020).

Third, seniors’ employment status significantly moderates this mechanism. Specifically, the direct effect of balanced time perspective on residential tourism intention is significantly stronger for employed seniors than for retired seniors (see Table 4). Residential tourism, which involves extended stays in a destination, is often more accessible to retired seniors due to fewer time and work-related constraints (Casado-Diaz, 1999; Hao & Xiao, 2021). As a result, their intentions for residential tourism are less influenced by their balanced time perspective. In contrast, employed seniors benefit more from a balanced time perspective, as it fosters positive temporal orientations that enhance their intentions for residential tourism. In other words, while both groups benefit, retirees already have higher accessibility and fewer barriers, whereas employed seniors rely more heavily on balanced time perspective to manage competing demands and strengthen their intentions.

Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms driving residential tourism intentions differ between retired and employed seniors. For retired seniors, perceived social support plays a more significant mediating role in the relationship between a balanced time perspective and residential tourism intention (see Table 4). This aligns with previous research suggesting that retired seniors are more prone to social isolation and loneliness compared to their employed counterparts, making perceived social support a critical factor in their decision-making process (Donovan & Blazer, 2020; Tomás et al., 2019). This is consistent with Ferrand et al.'s (2014) and Vanhove-Meriaux et al.'s (2018) studies who found that relatedness is the most important indicator for retired senior's wellbeing. On the other hand, for employed seniors, the mediating role of meaning in life is more pronounced (see Table 4). King and Hicks (2021) explained the strong influence of work on meaning in life. As indicated by Pinquart (2002), employed older adults are more likely to derive a strong sense of purpose and meaning from their work. Flecha García (2019) also highlights “hard-working” as a key component of how seniors interpret meaning in life. This deeper sense of purpose likely influences their intentions to engage in residential tourism, as it aligns with their pursuit of meaningful experiences and personal growth.

Theoretical implications

This study makes several key contributions to tourism literature. First, this study deepens the understanding of senior travel behavior by situating residential tourism, an increasingly prevalent mobility pattern among older adults, at the center of analysis. Although residential tourism is not a new phenomenon, its theoretical relevance becomes much clearer when examined through the lens of senior tourism Seniors differ fundamentally from younger travelers in ways that directly shape long-stay mobility: they possess heightened awareness of limited future time, demonstrate stronger needs for comfort, social connectedness, and meaning, and often face transitions related to health, identity, and retirement. These age-related characteristics make residential tourism particularly salient for seniors, as the extended duration, lifestyle orientation, and deeper social integration required in residential stays align closely with their psychological needs and life-stage motivations (Hao & Xiao, 2021; Hannonen, 2018). Thus, residential tourism serves as a theoretically rich context for exploring how seniors make sustained mobility decisions that go beyond leisure and increasingly reflect lifestyle, identity, and wellbeing considerations. Despite the rapid growth of senior tourism, most existing research focuses on short-term trips or general leisure travel (e.g. Alén et al., 2016; Leung et al., 2025; Patterson & Balderas-Cejudo, 2023), leaving long-stay, residential forms of tourism largely unexplored. Yet residential tourism introduces fundamentally different psychological demands, such as sustained adaptation, long-term planning, management of dual social networks, and negotiation of identity and purpose, that extend beyond the scope of traditional senior travel models. By examining seniors’ residential travel intention, this study opens new theoretical pathways to understanding how deeper psychological mechanisms, including time perspective and basic psychological need satisfaction, shape seniors’ willingness to engage in lengthier travel experiences. In doing so, it positions residential tourism not simply as a mobility type, but as a critical site for advancing theory on aging, motivation, and long-term travel behavior.

Second, this study provides stronger conceptual clarification regarding the role of balanced time perspective in tourism decision making. Time perspective theory, although recently recognized in psychological research (e.g. Stolarski et al., 2011, 2020), remains relatively underutilized in tourism studies. Our findings extend the theory by showing that BTP functions as a cognitive integrative mechanism that supports complex, future-oriented life choices rather than short-term consumption behaviors. Conceptually, this suggests that temporal balance is not simply an indicator of psychological health but a decision-enabling capability that facilitates adaptive responses to major life transitions. Balanced time perspective is important because it helps individuals integrate past experiences, engage effectively in the present, and plan for the future, an ability that is increasingly critical in an era of longer life expectancy, delayed retirement, and greater lifestyle mobility. Rather than being relevant only to senior tourism, BTP should be understood as a foundational psychological resource that supports major life decisions by fostering meaning and social connectedness. Although this study focuses on older adults, the identified mechanism suggests broader applicability to other populations experiencing transition or uncertainty, such as middle-aged adults managing career or caregiving changes, pre-retirees considering relocation, digital nomads, or younger individuals exploring migration or gap-year travel. Future research may therefore examine balanced time perspective as a cross-life-stage construct shaping long-term mobility decisions.

Third, this study is among the first to integrate time perspective theory with self-determination theory in the context of travel intentions. By examining how a balanced time perspective interacts with the psychological needs highlighted in self-determination theory (i.e. autonomy, competence, and relatedness), this research illuminates the underlying psychological mechanisms that motivate seniors to engage in residential tourism. Specifically, the mediation results provide conceptual evidence that BTP operates upstream of need fulfillment, enhancing individuals’ capacity to perceive social support (relatedness) and construct meaning (autonomy and competence). This clarifies how temporal cognition activates motivational processes, thereby offering a more precise theoretical explanation than prior studies that examined these frameworks separately. In doing so, it bridges two important theoretical frameworks and broadens their application beyond traditional settings, thereby enriching the theoretical discourse in tourism.

Finally, the study extends self-determination theory by demonstrating how the three basic needs—relatedness, autonomy, and competence—may exert different influences on seniors’ travel decisions depending on their employment status. Although prior research suggests that the roles of these basic needs may shift over the lifespan (e.g. Henning et al., 2019; Ryan & La Guardia, 2000), the interplay between life-stage transitions and other sociodemographic factors remains underexplored. Specifically, the findings reveal that employed seniors’ travel behaviors are more strongly driven by autonomy and competence, while for retired seniors, relatedness emerges as the dominant motivator. The findings further generate a conceptual insight: the motivational consequences of temporal balance are context-sensitive rather than universal. By highlighting how sociodemographic factors modify the relative importance of these needs, the study not only refines the application of self-determination theory in tourism contexts but also invites further investigation into how seniors’ changing roles and social conditions shape their travel behaviors.

Practical implications

This study also offers valuable insights for the tourism industry. Since a balanced time perspective positively influences seniors’ residential tourism intentions, destinations and tourism businesses should focus on cultivating positive time orientations (past-positive, present-hedonistic, and future) while helping seniors reduce the influence of negative orientations (past-negative and present-fatalistic). Because seniors’ perceptions of time are more salient and emotionally charged than those of younger tourists, marketing aimed at this group should emphasize meaningful past reflection, present enjoyment, and hopeful future living, dimensions that resonate strongly with aging consumers. A practical approach is to develop specialized programs or workshops for seniors that encourage them to positively reflect on their personal histories, fully engage in present pleasures, and set meaningful future goals. Such interventions have been shown to enhance psychological wellbeing and adaptability among older adults (Desmyter & De Raedt, 2012). By actively involving seniors in these exercises, destinations, and tourism businesses can help them cultivate a more adaptable mindset, making them more receptive to residential travel opportunities. Additionally, destinations may design promotional materials and marketing campaigns highlighting the benefits of residential tourism for wellbeing across multiple time horizons: revisiting past passions or locations, experiencing present joys, and envisioning a purposeful future full of new discoveries.

Given the importance of perceived social support in mediating seniors’ residential tourism intentions, destinations, and tourism businesses should focus on strengthening seniors’ social connections. Research shows that social support is a key predictor of seniors’ travel motivation and satisfaction, especially in unfamiliar environments (Chen et al., 2021). Tourism providers should recognize that seniors’ travel confidence is strongly tied to feeling supported, secure, and socially connected, far more so than for younger demographic groups. For example, destinations could promote organized group tours, community-based travel clubs, or intergenerational programs that naturally facilitate companionship and reduce feelings of isolation during extended stays. Tourism businesses could create support networks that assist seniors with booking travel arrangements, navigating health services while abroad, and staying in touch with family back home. Such social scaffolding can alleviate concerns about safety, isolation, and unfamiliar environments, thereby boosting seniors’ confidence and willingness to embark on residential travel experiences.

Meaning in life also significantly mediates seniors’ residential tourism intentions. Accordingly, tourism businesses should design and promote activities that allow older travelers to engage in purposeful, enriching experiences. These might include opportunities for volunteering, participating in hands-on workshops, or attending guided tours that deepen cultural understanding. Previous studies have shown that meaning-making travel can increase seniors’ psychological wellbeing and sense of fulfillment (Hooker et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2016). Older travelers often seek opportunities that reinforce autonomy, competence, and purpose, qualities that are less central to the motivations of leisure-focused younger travelers. By providing avenues for seniors to contribute, learn, and reflect, tourism businesses can empower them to align their travel experiences with personal values and aspirations, thereby enhancing their sense of purpose and overall satisfaction.

Finally, recognizing that employed and retired seniors may prioritize different psychological needs is essential for more effective market segmentation and product development. For employed seniors, whose sense of meaning is often tied to autonomy and competence, tourism businesses could highlight opportunities for skill-building, self-improvement, or professional networking during residential tourism. For instance, specialized “working holiday” packages could integrate co-working spaces or professional workshops into the travel itinerary, enabling employed seniors to maintain a sense of productivity and competence (King & Hicks, 2021; Flecha García, 2019). Conversely, for retired seniors, social support, and relatedness tend to be more critical. Tourism businesses could offer group-oriented experiences, intergenerational programs, or community-based activities that allow retirees to form meaningful bonds with fellow travelers and local residents. Organizing events such as communal dining, group excursions, or cultural exchange activities can help fulfill retirees’ desire for connection (Donovan & Blazer, 2020; Tomás et al., 2019).

Limitations and future research

First, data collection was limited to Chinese senior travelers, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to other cultural or regional contexts. Future studies are encouraged to adopt cross-cultural approaches to explore potential differences in senior residential tourism behavior. Second, the study adopted 55 as the cutoff age for older adults. Given that there is no universally accepted standard for defining seniors, future research might investigate whether different age thresholds influence older adults’ balanced time perspective and travel intentions. Third, this study did not account for the influence of seniors’ social roles, such as caregiving responsibilities or familial obligations, which may affect their travel intentions. Future research could explore how these contextual factors interact with psychological traits like time perspective to shape seniors’ travel behaviors. Fourth, this study utilized the MSPSS, which assesses perceived support from family, friends, and significant others; however, it does not include aspects of social empowerment, an important dimension for elder wellbeing and agency. Future research could extend this work by incorporating social empowerment measures to more fully capture the social dynamics affecting senior travelers. Finally, this study employed a cross-sectional design with self-reported data to test the proposed model, which limits the ability to establish causality. Future studies could adopt alternative methodologies, such as longitudinal research, in-depth interviews, experiments, or mixed-method approaches, to gain richer insights into the relationships examined and potentially strengthen causal inferences.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Qiong Sun

Xi Y Leung

Jie (Jamie) Sun

Yuxiang An

Ethical considerations

This research project poses minimal to no risk to participants and has, therefore, been exempted from ethical review by the University IRB committee. All participants were provided with an electronic informed consent form, which they reviewed and acknowledged by clicking ‘Continue’ before proceeding with the online surveys.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study is supported by the Project of Cultivation for young top-motch Talents of Beijing Municipal Institutions BPHR202203211).

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability statement

The datasets are available upon request.

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