The influence of life transitions on Danish adults’ physical activity beliefs and behaviour: A qualitative study

Abstract

Using a qualitative design, we explored how life transitions influence Danish adults’ physical activity beliefs and behaviour adopting the Theory of Planned Behaviour as a guiding framework. Life story interviews with 42 participants revealed 6 salient life transition periods which affected physical activity behaviour, either in a disruptive way resulting in decreased activity levels or in a facilitative manner, providing opportunities for increased activity engagement. The identified life transition periods uniquely influenced individuals’ attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (PBC) beliefs, thus affecting motivations toward physical activity. Specifically, starting primary school or a career, forming a romantic relationship, and having a child primarily shaped subjective norm and PBC, while leaving home was especially influential on PBC and retirement on attitudes and PBC. Consistent themes across the transition periods included time constraints and opportunities to be active, supportive social contexts, access to facilities and having a need to be active.

Keywords

behaviour change interview study life course life transitions physical activity behaviour theory of planned behaviour

The benefits of regular physical activity (PA), defined as at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity PA per week, or an equivalent combination (Warburton and Bredin, 2017), are well-established. These benefits include physical health improvements like reduced mortality risk and chronic disease prevention (Warburton and Bredin, 2017), as well as psychological and social gains such as enhanced self-esteem and more satisfying social interactions (Eime et al., 2013). Despite these benefits, there remains a significant global prevalence of insufficient physical activity, with 27.5% of adults aged over 18 years old being inactive in 2016 (Guthold et al., 2018). One avenue to better understand the issues surrounding people’s PA behaviour is to explore the beliefs driving the behaviour using psychological theories of behaviour change (Hagger et al., 2020). A prototypical theory that has been well used to understand the influences on PA behaviour at an individual level is the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975).

According to TPB, intention to engage in a behaviour is the most proximal predictor of behaviour (Ajzen, 1985), including PA behaviours (Hagger et al., 2002). Intention capsulates the motivational factors influencing a behaviour and signifies the readiness or determination to enact a behaviour. An individual’s likelihood of engaging in a specific behaviour increases in proportion to the strength of their intention to do so (Ajzen, 1991). According to the theory, individuals’ intention to perform the behaviour is mediated through three kinds of belief-based constructs of behaviour, attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control (PBC) (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). When individuals have positive attitudes toward a behaviour, believe that others expect them to engage in that behaviour, and perceive they have control over their actions, their intention to perform the behaviour is strong and, thus, a greater likelihood of behavioural performance (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen and Schmidt, 2020; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Hagger and Hamilton, 2024; Hamilton and White, 2010).

The attitude construct refers to an individual’s evaluative assessments concerning the behaviour, whether positive or negative. An individual’s attitude is shaped by beliefs about the expected outcomes and the evaluations of these outcomes. If the expected outcomes align with personal values and are perceived positively, a favourable attitude emerges (Ajzen, 1991). The subjective norm construct refers to the perceived societal pressures or normative beliefs an individual has concerning the behaviour. If an individual perceives that important individuals or groups of people in their life endorse or expect them to perform the behaviour, they will be more likely to align with those expectations (Ajzen, 1991; Kim et al., 2019). The PBC construct refers to the extent to which people believe that they have the ability and resources to engage in the behaviour, considering possible barriers or facilitators. If these control beliefs are conducive to behavioural performance, then action is more likely (Ajzen, 1991; Hagger et al., 2022).

The TPB also emphasises the role of ‘background’ factors, which are considered as indirect influences on intentions and behaviour through their influence on attitudes, subjective norms and PBC (Ajzen, 2020; Hagger and Hamilton, 2021). These include, for example, personality traits (intrinsic patterns of thought, emotion and action), socio-structural variables (e.g. age, gender, race, socioeconomic status and education), past behaviour (historical behaviours that become predictors of current and future behaviours), information and knowledge (depth and breadth of one’s understanding of a specific behaviour), and other individual differences (e.g. personal values, unique life experiences and cultural and political beliefs) (Ajzen, 2020). However, applications of the TPB often neglect the importance of background factors and, thereby, give limited attention to research showing that engagement in health behaviours varies across populations, contexts and environments (Hagger and Hamilton, 2021). In a recent study, Hagger and Hamilton (2021) demonstrated socio-structural variables to exert both direct and mediated effects on behavioural intentions and behaviour; the socio-structural variables influenced behaviour through their influence on the components of the TPB, particularly PBC. These effects of background factors on intentions and behaviour highlight the importance of understanding the influence of global constructs such as attitudes, subjective norms and PBC alongside socio-structural factors when designing interventions aiming to support PA behaviour.

While the influence of these factors on individuals’ behaviour is important, it is equally relevant to understand the influence of these variables on people’s behaviour within critical life transition periods. Research has highlighted that PA behaviour stability is notably low throughout the life course, with significant variations during transitions such as starting primary school, marriage, parenthood and retirement (Corder et al., 2020; Gropper et al., 2020). These periods often bring substantial behavioural changes in PA, yet insights into the psychological underpinnings of these changes are limited (Corder et al., 2009; Gropper et al., 2020). Theoretically, life transition periods can be speculated to influence the more distal background factors posited in the TPB, which, in turn, may affect people’s attitudes, subjective norms and PBC. For instance, starting primary school or a job can expose individuals to new social groups, which might influence their subjective norms (i.e. their perceptions of what others think they should do) in relation to their behaviour; in this context, their PA.

Understanding the beliefs individuals hold toward PA performance during salient life transition periods may assist interventionalists and healthcare professionals to develop effective programs addressing life transition challenges and promoting sustained PA (Gropper et al., 2020). Effective interventions require identifying both modifiable factors, like attitudes toward PA, and unmodifiable factors, such as life transition, to understand their behavioural impact, with the latter providing reference to key groups to target (Hagger et al., 2020).

The current study

Applying the TPB as the theoretical framework, this study aims to explore how life transitions, as an expression of changes in background factors, influence the PA beliefs and behaviour of Danish adults. Specifically, the focus is on how salient life transition periods influence people’s attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC and, subsequently, how these beliefs influence their PA behaviour. From this knowledge, we hope to gain rich understandings of changes in PA behaviour during life transitions and offer actionable insights for developing contextually relevant and effective interventions. To achieve this aim, in-depth life story interviews using a codebook thematic analysis, known as framework analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2021b; Ritchie and Spencer, 1994), was used to understand the relationship between life transitions, social cognitions and PA behaviour. Through this approach, we anticipated identifying patterns in the data that highlight underlying psychological mechanisms and processes by which life transitions influence PA behaviour.

Methods

Design and participants

This study adopted a qualitative semi-structured interview design to explore the influence of life transitions on PA beliefs and behaviour. This approach offered an opportunity to generate nuanced understandings through the subjective experiences of individuals undergoing life transitions and the ways in which these experiences influence PA (Kvale, 2007). In total, 42 semi-structured interviews were conducted with Danish adults to delve into how life transitions affected their PA beliefs and behaviour.

Participants for this interview study were selected from a subset of 48,488 individuals who, after completing a questionnaire on PA habits in the larger Moving Denmark survey involving 163,136 Danish adults (15+ years), expressed interest in further participation. The interview persons were selected for the purpose of developing a range of insights into the influence of beliefs on PA participation within life transitions, using maximum variation sampling (Gray, 2004; Schreier, 2018) based on PA frequency level, gender and age.

PA frequency level indexes were created for recreation, occupation, household and transportation domains. We added the number of times per week that the respondents were active in different activities within each domain. In the household domain for instance, we added how often they were active in cooking, cleaning, washing, gardening and other household work. The frequency of participation in each activity was measured using the following scale: 0 = never, 1 = less than once a week, 2 = 1–2 times per week, 3 = 3–4 times per week and 4 = 5 or more times per week. A summative index was constructed for each domain. This was then converted into a scale from 1 to 5 splitting the index into 5 equally large groups. This was done for each domain and then added into 1 measure for PA across domains, which was again converted into a scale from 1 to 5 splitting the index into 5 equally large groups. 1 was then coded as ‘low’, 2–5 was coded as ‘medium’ and 5 as ‘high’ activity level. Participants were also segmented into 3 age groups – 15–29, 30–54 and 65+ years, reflecting key life stages in Denmark, from pre-parenthood to post-retirement. Combining these criteria (PA level, gender and age), 18 sample groups were formed, including groups such as ‘Low activity, Male, aged 15–29’ or ‘High activity, Female, aged 65 or older’.

Participants were recruited through email. The email detailed the study’s aim to understand the link between life experiences and PA, underscoring the first author’s interview role and promising anonymity. Each interview was estimated to last 2–3 hours. Following a modest initial response, invitations were dispatched in 5–10 batches, resulting in 58 acceptances out of 436 invites. Interviewing ceased after 42 discussions, achieving adequate information power (Braun and Clarke, 2021a), thereby ensuring data richness and relevance within resource limits.

The final sample consisted of 42 participants; 19 male and 23 female. PA frequency levels were categorised as 16 low, 14 average and 12 high. Age of participants included 15 aged 15–29 years, 13 aged 30–64 years and 14 aged 65 years or older. For further details on participant demographics, see the supplementary material.

Data collection

Initial questions covered participants’ background and current circumstances, followed by a life mapping exercise as per Lieblich et al. (1998), where participants envisioned their life as a book and titled each chapter. We then delved into PA behaviour, exploring reasons, motives, barriers and experiences within each life chapter. The interview guide underwent a pilot test for clarity (refer to supplementary material for the complete guide).

In 2021, the interviews were carried out by the first author, a trained female PhD student with a Master’s degree and experience in qualitative research. She conducted the interviews with an unbiased approach, aiming to authentically capture participants’ experiences. The average duration was 130 minutes. Most interviews were face-to-face (n = 38), with four conducted online due to convenience or COVID-19. The majority of in-person interviews took place in participants’ homes (n = 35), typically with only the participant and interviewer present (n = 38). Two interviews were held in private and quiet areas of public locations (a public park and a library) upon participants’ request, and in two instances, participants’ spouses were in the same room.

The audio-recorded interviews were transcribed orthographically, and identifying information was removed from the transcript and pseudonyms were assigned before being uploaded to NVivo (Jackson and Bazeley, 2019). Post-interview field notes were also compiled and uploaded to NVivo. These notes were not only descriptive but also analytical and interpretative in nature, allowing room for researcher reflexivity.

Data analysis

We applied the codebook thematic analysis method, known as the framework method (Braun and Clarke, 2020, 2021b; Ritchie and Spencer, 1994), for analysing the interview data due to its systematic approach to organising qualitative data. While this method allows for themes to be established early, it also accommodates refinements and the generation of new themes inductively throughout the analysis process (Braun and Clarke, 2020, 2021b; Gale et al., 2013; Ritchie and Spencer, 1994). This allowed us to explore and understand the individual perspectives of the participants without losing a holistic view of the large amount of data.

The framework analysis involves five phases: Familiarisation, development of the framework, indexing, charting and interpretation (Gale et al., 2013; Parkinson et al., 2016; Ritchie and Spencer, 1994). In the familiarisation phase of our study, the first author listened to interviews and read transcripts to form initial impressions and identify preliminary patterns in participants’ narratives. This laid the groundwork for developing a coding framework focused on three major code categories: life transitions, beliefs and PA behaviour. Life transitions were defined as periods in a person’s life where significant lifestyle changes occurred, and data were analysed within these periods. Beliefs were analysed according to the TPB framework and included attitudes (associations of PA with desirable or undesirable outcomes), subjective norms (perceived societal pressures about PA), and PBC (perceived ease or difficulty of engaging in PA). The data were further analysed according to PA profiles; increased PA, sustained PA and decreased PA. During indexing, the first author applied this framework to the dataset using NVivo, segmenting and labelling the data. While ‘life transitions’ was a predetermined broad code category, specific sub-code categories like beginning primary school and retiring were generated inductively. In the charting phase, a matrix in NVivo facilitated cross-comparison, with rows for life transitions and columns for subcodes and PA outcomes. Finally, in the interpretation phase, we analysed patterns across these intersections, exploring how specific transitions like ‘beginning primary school’ influenced beliefs and PA behaviours. This comprehensive analysis aided us in refining initial themes, enhancing our understanding of the interplay between life transitions, beliefs and PA behaviour.

Ethical approval

We conducted the study according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was granted by an Institutional Review Board prior to participant recruitment. The approval was granted on 08.11.2019 with reference number 10.680. All individual participants included in the study provided verbal informed consent.

Results

We identified six significant life transitions leading to shifts in roles, social environment, built environment and/or daily routines in participants’ life stories: beginning primary school, leaving home, starting a career, forming romantic relationships, having a child and retiring. These life transitions influenced participants’ attitudes, subjective norms and PBC towards PA as well as their PA behaviour. The result section aims to highlight both the prevalent patterns and unusual occurrences in relation to how each life transition influenced PA beliefs and behaviour.

Beginning primary school

Beginning primary school marked a significant transition in the lives of participants as they were introduced to a more structured learning environment and new social groups. Their new role as early students had important impacts on their beliefs and behaviours toward PA.

The first change in this transition period was in the occupation domain. Free play in kindergarten was substituted with more sedentary learning time during the school day, influencing their subjective norms and PBC. For example, Mogens recalled, ‘Suddenly, one had to sit still. There was no more climbing up and down walls and the like. It was just “Ordnung Muss Sein” [German for “Order must prevail”]’. As Mogens’ quotation indicates, the transition to primary school, was a transition into an environment where the societal expectation was to ‘sit still’, implying a shift in subjective norms, with the understanding that the ‘accepted’ behaviour in a school setting is predominantly sedentary and a felt pressure to comply. Simultaneously, the shift from free play to structured sedentary learning time led the participants to perceive opportunities to be physically active as less accessible during their school hours, therefore influencing their PBC over being physically active.

As the participants transitioned into primary school, they were also introduced to a more structured PA environment through physical education classes. Physical education shaped participants’ attitudes and PBC over PA, manifesting in different ways based on their individual experiences and competencies. For some, physical education offered a showroom for different kinds of sports, helping them discover activities they were good at and enjoyed. Lis, for instance, said,

In physical education, we did the high jump and the long jump. I was good at that. When you’re good at something, you tend to like it. I discovered that there was an athletics club in the neighbouring municipality, and I started there.

In this case, the school environment positively introduced her to various physical activities and sports. Her experiences in physical education led to the discovery of her skills in high jump, long jump and running, fostering enjoyment in athletics, and enhancing a positive attitude towards it. This discovery also likely boosted her confidence in her athletic abilities, positively influencing her PBC. Not everyone, however, experienced the school environment as having a positive role in introducing them to different types of PA and sports, which influenced their attitudes and PBC towards PA negatively. Søren, for example, noticed,

I have always been chubby. […] In physical education, I was not as agile as some of the others. I was never the first one chosen when teams were picked, and that leaves its mark. It has probably affected my desire to engage in sports and exercise ever since.

Søren’s experiences of being less agile than his peers, and consistently being one of the last chosen for teams, led to lasting negative feelings towards physical education specifically, and PA in general. Being overweight and less agile than his peers led him to believe that PA was more difficult for him, influencing his PBC in a negative direction.

The transition to primary school also introduced the participants to new opportunities for organised sports after school hours within the recreation domain; the increased local availability of and participation in organised sports during leisure time were common themes, shaping their perceptions of both subjective norms and PBC. Mona, for example, reported high availability of organised sports during her early school years. She recalled, ‘Every village on Funen had a girls’ football team […] Everyone practised it’. Mona’s statement illustrates a profound influence on her subjective norms. The availability of football clubs in every village signalled to her that participation in sports, particularly soccer, was expected and accepted within her community. Simultaneously, the accessibility of these clubs influenced Mona’s PBC. The proximity of clubs provided her with a sense of ease in her ability to engage in football.

Leaving home

The life transition of leaving home marked a salient shift in the lives of the participants. Moving from being primarily dependent on their family to be more independent, this transition is characterised by both increased responsibility and autonomy. The participants described how they undertook more work in the household domain, used more active transportation, and adapted to new social environments. In terms of changes in PA behaviour, the participants predominantly reported that they decreased their participation in PA during leisure time, while they increased active transportation and PA at home. We found that changes in their PBC played a significant role on their PA behaviour in this transition phase.

One change was that the participants now had the full responsibility of managing their household, meaning increased domestic chores such as grocery shopping, cooking, cleaning and washing clothes. For most participants, managing daily tasks independently increased their sense of control and thus influenced their PBC. Mette, for instance, said,

I thought it was fantastic to manage my own life. Shopping for groceries, making sure to wash my clothes, and keeping track of whether I had enough money for food for the entire month. I was probably more physically active then.

Mette’s positive attitude towards managing household tasks independently reflects a general trend among the participants. They found more enjoyment in doing household tasks during the transition of leaving home compared to other life transitions. This increased enjoyment could be attributed to the shift from relying on others to becoming more independent, fostering a sense of accomplishment, and positively influencing their attitudes towards these tasks.

Moreover, leaving home often induced changes in the transportation domain. For most participants, leaving home meant moving to urban environments where they could use active transportation for daily commuting. Short distances to schools, workplaces and amenities, combined with the lack of availability of a car, contributed to the significant use of active transportation among the participants during their leaving home life transition. For instance, Hanne transitioned from using a car to cycling after moving to the city, which made her PA a necessary part of her daily routine. She described it as,

When I moved into the city and had to take care of myself more, I cycled to the university and around the city.

Hanne’s account suggests that her shift to a more urban environment significantly changed her PBC over her mode of transportation. Cycling became not only a viable but also a necessary option for her.

Also, participants discussed the need to adapt to new social environments in the recreation domain when they left home. For those who previously had engaged in organised sports, leaving home often led to the discontinuation of their sports participation. For example, Mona stopped practising soccer due to the perceived absence of opportunities and insufficient community inclusion when she moved to a big city. She recalled,

When I moved to [town] to study I stopped playing soccer because I could not make it to practice anymore. I really missed it terribly. When I moved to [town] the following year, I tried to start again, but there wasn’t anyone who included me in the community, or maybe I gave up too quickly.

Mona’s move to a bigger city led to a perceived lack of opportunities and a sense of not being included in the community, influencing her PBC and PA behaviour in a negative way. Mona’s account also illustrates how the change in her new environment influenced her attitudes towards PA, with the sense of loss and exclusion leading to a negative attitude towards engaging in soccer in her new city. Participants who engaged in more individual activities, such as running or cycling, less saliently reported a negative influence. Thus, the influence of the life transition of leaving home on PA during recreation seems to be contingent upon the type of activity and associated social dynamics.

Starting a career

Starting a career marked another transition in the participants’ lives. They faced new demands and responsibilities related to the occupation domain. The influence of this transition on their PA beliefs and behaviour varied. For the majority of participants, PA during leisure time decreased due to new work demands, while for others, it increased because they got new opportunities for being physically active within the workday or PA organised by their workplace. In this life transition, shifts in PBC and subjective norms seemed salient, and thereby played a role in shaping their PA behaviour.

A significant change for participants starting a career was the new demands and responsibilities related to their job (the occupation), influencing their PBC over their PA in the recreation domain. Jens, a police officer, had to cease his badminton activity due to the demands of his three-shift work schedule. He said, ‘When I was 25, I had to stop playing badminton because I worked on a three-shift schedule. It required much planning. […] It just didn’t work, so I stopped when the season was over’. Jens’ statement provides an example of how a demanding work schedule, as part of his police officer career, negatively influenced his perceived ability to maintain his badminton practice, and thereby his PBC. Despite his positive attitude toward badminton, the constraints of his career posed significant challenges to his PBC. Consequently, he stopped playing.

Furthermore, participants’ subjective norms towards PA were also identified to influence their PA behaviour during this life transition. Participants who did not feel supported by their social environment were more likely to decrease their PA levels during this life transition. Marie-Louise, who worked full-time as an accountant, illustrates the influence of subjective norms and PBC on PA levels. She said, ‘When I started working, my PA decreased dramatically because I worked so many hours […] I rarely know any accountants who exercise on the side. It’s a terrible profession in that regard’. Due to the demands of her work, Marie-Louise found it difficult to find time to be physically active, which influenced her PBC over being physically active. Consequently, she experienced a significant reduction in her PA. The lack of value placed on PA within her occupation also contributed to her decreased practice of PA, since she lacked social support at her workplace for engaging in PA. Marie-Louise’s story, therefore, demonstrates the ways in which work demands and norms can interact to influence PA beliefs and consequently behaviour.

Conversely, for some participants, a new career increased their PA levels. Anette, for example, started playing badminton when she discovered her new workplace offered company sports. She recalled, ‘Badminton came into the picture when I got a job where there were company sports. We played once a week […] Friendship with my colleagues meant a lot to me. It was a good workplace’. For Anette and other participants who reported increased PA levels during this life transition, opportunities to be physically active during their working day or in activities organised by their workplace were identified as factors that eased the difficulties of being physically active after starting a career, thus their PBC. Moreover, the presence of company sports can shift subjective norms positively, fostering a culture where PA is valued and encouraged. Anette’s statement illustrates the positive role the work environment can play in shaping employees’ PA beliefs when placing PA on the agenda.

Forming a romantic relationship

Forming a romantic relationship was also identified as a life transition that caused significant changes for participants. Forming romantic relationships where often accompanied by a reorganisation of daily routines and a reassessment of priorities and focus. These changes seemed to primarily influence participants’ subjective norms and PBC, thereby changing their intention to be physically active. Participants described that in this transition they generally decreased their PA level; however, some of the participants stated that they sustained or increased their PA. We identified the most profound changes in the participants accounts of recreation PA. Lars, for example, decreased his participation in handball when he decided to restart an on-and-off romantic relationship. He said,

In April, I found a new girlfriend. We actually met each other in 2013, and we’ve tried a few times, but we haven’t really been able to make it work. Now it’s possible again because I’ve simply stopped playing handball. I wanted to continue, but handball took up many hours a week, and now I want something else. Now, I want to spend time with her.

The dynamics of Lars’ romantic relationship resulted in a reassessment of his priorities and focus. As Lars (re-) entered into a romantic relationship, he felt obligated to dedicate more of his recreation time to his partner, reflecting a shift in his subjective norms. He believed that his new girlfriend would prefer him spending time with her rather than at his handball practice. The effect of this shift in subjective norms, in turn, influenced Lars’ PBC. With the added commitment to his romantic relationship, allocating the time required to maintain his handball practice became challenging, leading him to quit. Thus, the shift in his subjective norms, together with PBC, shaped Lars’ intention to discontinue with handball.

Contrary, Maria increased her PA when she formed a romantic relationship with a partner who was more active than she was. She stated,

We found each other. He’s more active than I am. In a way, he inspires me. It may not be the most romantic way, but more because I feel guilty: that I should also… But that motivation probably counts as well.

Maria’s increase in PA was primarily due to changes in her subjective norms and PBC. Her subjective norms were influenced by her partner, as she clearly thought he would approve of her being physically active. In addition, she said that her partner encouraged and supported her efforts to be more physically active, which eased her PBC.

Having a child

Having a child had a salient influence on the participants PA behaviour. The arrival of a child tended to disrupt daily schedules and shift prior priorities. Participants discussed how they suddenly had to deal with irregular sleep patterns, feeding times, and childcare. Time once spent on personal activities, including recreational PA, where now dedicated to the care and nurturing of a child. None of the participants reported an increase in PA level after having a child. All reported a significant decrease in recreational PA, although some were able to maintain at least some level of PA. However, the participants reported increased PA in the household domain, doing more domestic chores and childcare-related activities. Marie-Louise, for instance, narrated,

My daily routine involves getting the children ready and taking care of the horses, mostly preparing myself for work at the computer […] In the evenings, dinner is made and chores are done. On weekends, I take on more tasks, such as doing laundry […] If you tracked my physical activity, you’d see I hardly sit still.

Marie-Louises PA is highly influenced by her family obligations. Marie-Louise’s account of her daily routine – facilitating her children’s day, meal preparation and laundry – represents her obligations and thus pressures linked to parenthood. These shifts in subjective norms, although parenthood-oriented, profoundly influenced her PA behaviours in relation to domestic work.

In general, participants reported that they struggled to balance recreation, work, home and family responsibilities after having a child. They perceived that their new role left little or no time to focus on themselves and engage in recreational PA, which significantly influenced their recreation PA PBC. For example, Maria, who practised fitness before having a child, noted:

We rented a shared apartment and established ourselves and just enjoyed this period where you… what do you call it… Two incomes and no kids […] It was nice. Freedom and money […] It’s the period in my life when I’ve been strongest. I was really strong […] It stopped when I had a child […] Priorities and everyday life was suddenly completely different, where someone else is in charge and there is a great responsibility.

However, a significant part of the transitions’ influence on PA behaviour can also be attributed to changes in subjective norms. The participants reported feeling pressure from societal expectations to prioritise tasks in the household domain, that is taking care of the needs of their child over their own PA, and many felt guilty for taking time away from their child to engage in recreation PA. This was particularly prominent among the female participants.

Marie-Louise found her way back to horse riding after she had her second child. It is notable that it was possible for some participants to find a way to pursue their interests even with competing demands on their time. Marie-Louise said,

I actually started riding again, but I do it at 9 pm at night. My children are asleep anyway, so it doesn’t take time away from them. It only takes time away from my husband, and he knows how happy I am when I’m with the horse.

Marie-Louise’s positive attitude towards horse riding motivated her to find a way of fitting it into her schedule, and with that, easing her PBC, which allowed her to increase her engagement in horse riding despite being a mother.

Retiring

The retired participants noted that their lives changed significantly as they transitioned into retirement. After leaving their job, participants discussed having more time and energy in the recreation and household domains as well as fewer responsibilities in the occupation and transport domain. However, age-related health challenges also emerged. These changes mainly influenced their attitudes towards and PBC over PA. All participants increased their recreational PA levels after retirement. More time and energy and fewer responsibilities allowed the participants to engage in physical activities more easily; thus, they primarily influenced their recreational-related PBC. For example, Anette said,

I started practising more sports because there was more time for them. Tennis, for example, was something that came in when I retired I also did some yoga. We became a part of our senior sports club here in town. I go on long walks. So my movement pattern definitely changed as I retired.

Anette’s mention of becoming a member of a senior club illustrates another important change when becoming a retiree that many of the retired participants mentioned; recreation opportunities. These participants perceived many local opportunities available to enable having a physically active senior life. Thus, these changes primarily influenced their PBC.

Alongside changes in PBC, the transition to retirement also induced shifts in attitudes towards household and recreation PA. Annette’s stated,

We think a lot about how important it is to move because we see how hard [household tasks] are for people who do not do. We are very aware that we still want to be able to do it, also when we get older. Those thoughts came with our retirement.

Annette’s statement suggests she developed an understanding of the negative consequences of physical inactivity (e.g. difficulty in moving) and the benefits of PA (e.g. maintaining physical functionality), enhancing her evaluation of the outcomes of being physically active. This shift in beliefs and evaluations signified a change in attitudes, making her more favourably disposed towards PA.

Discussion

Through the lens of the TPB, the present study explored how life transitions influence PA beliefs and behaviour among Danish adults. The present study contributes to the current literature by providing a rich understanding of how background factors, in this context life transitions, might influence PA. Findings provided an insight into how life transitions, including beginning primary school, leaving home, starting a career, forming romantic relationships, having a child and retiring, can shift people’s PA beliefs, and thus, result in fluctuations in PA behaviour.

Previous literature that has investigated the role of life transitions on PA levels have suggested that life transitions tend to decrease PA behaviour, except for retirement (Gropper et al., 2020). This study echoes this tendency, yet also provides subjective accounts where other life transition phases may provide opportunities to increase PA and identifies potential psychological processes explaining how people’s PA beliefs and behaviours may change in each life transition. This study revealed that life transitions modify attitudes, subjective norms and PBC, subsequently affecting PA behaviour. Common themes, such as time constraints and PA opportunities, emerged across various transitions. Structured settings like schools and demanding jobs often restrict PA time, while retirement typically offers more leisure time, promoting activity. Social contexts also shape PA, with peer influence in school, partner dynamics in romantic relationships, and workplace interactions affecting subjective norms and PBC. Additionally, access to facilities and activities shifts with life stages: schools offer structured PA like physical education, whereas retirement may allow greater use of community sports facilities. The necessity of activities, such as household responsibilities post-leaving home or parenting duties, can also impact PA engagement. This study provides a nuanced view of how PA is influenced by different life transitions, enhancing understanding of individual shifts and broader patterns affecting PA throughout the life course.

Specifically, we found that these life transitions led to alterations in attitudes, subjective norms and PBC, which in turn, influenced individuals’ PA behaviour. Common themes, such as time constraints and PA opportunities, were identified across various transitions. Structured settings like schools and demanding jobs often restrict PA time, while retirement typically offers more leisure time, promoting activity. Social contexts also shape PA, with peer influence in school, partner dynamics in romantic relationships, and workplace interactions affecting subjective norms and PBC. Additionally, access to facilities and activities shifts with life stages. The necessity of activities, such as household responsibilities post-leaving home or parenting duties, can also impact PA engagement.

Previous studies using the TPB have made significant contributions to the PA literature by focusing on specific life transitions, such as entering retirement (Barnett et al., 2012), becoming a parent (Hamilton and White, 2010; Rhodes et al., 2014, 2021), or changing career paths (Kirk and Ryan, 2012). Our study complements this field of research by taking a holistic approach, exploring how various life transitions influence PA beliefs. This extended view enriches our understanding of the relationship between life transitions and PA beliefs, and thus, behaviour. We found that each life transition carries a unique influence on PA-related attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC, and that the various changes associated with life transitions are what shift people’s beliefs and therefore change their PA behaviour. We found that PBC consistently declines across transitions, driven by shifts in routines, responsibilities, and time. This aligns with prior research (Downs and Hausenblas, 2005; McEachan et al., 2011), stressing the significance of PBC as playing a key role on PA behaviour, yet the current study adds the nuance of life transition-specific influences. The influence of life transitions on attitudes and subjective norms towards PA is markedly inconsistent, contrasting with the more uniform decline in PBC. Each life transition presents unique challenges and opportunities that shape these constructs in a dynamic fashion. For example, school environments may negatively alter subjective norms but also offer avenues for positive attitude formation through physical education. Similarly, work environments and romantic relationships can either positively or negatively influence attitudes and norms, contingent upon various contextual factors.

Our study complements Hagger and Hamilton (2021)‘s research on the impact of socio-structural variables like age, gender, education and income on health behaviours, particularly highlighting how these factors influence behaviour through social cognition constructs such as PBC. While Hagger and Hamilton (2021) showed age indirectly affects health behaviour via social cognition constructs, our research focuses on how specific life transitions changes, shape these behaviours. Our findings provide a nuanced understanding of these influences across different life domains, offering insights into how life transitions distinctly impact PA beliefs and behaviours throughout an individual’s life. This enhances and expands upon the understanding of behavioural influences, adding depth to the broader implications of socio-structural factors on health-related behaviours. This highlights the importance of considering background factors not just as control variables but as significant influencers that shape attitudes, subjective norms and PBC in the TPB framework.

Strengths, limitations and future directions

A strength of this study is the use of qualitative methods, specifically in-depth life story interviews, which allowed for a deeper and more nuanced understanding of individuals’ experiences and perspectives on PA during life transitions. Another strength of this study is the use of a theoretical framework, the TPB, for understanding PA behaviour. The theory is well-used and provides a comprehensive yet parsimonious explanation of how attitudes, subjective norms and PBC influence behaviour (Downs and Hausenblas, 2005; Hagger et al., 2002; McEachan et al., 2011). This theory was highly relevant to the present study as it acknowledges the importance of considering both proximal and background factors in understanding behaviour, making it possible to gain a more nuanced understanding of why individuals may engage in PA or not during life transitions.

The study, however, is not without limitations. One key limitation was the use of retrospective accounts, where participants were asked to reflect on their experiences and behaviours during previous life transitions. Participants may have had difficulty recalling past experiences and their related beliefs and behaviours, thus leading to inaccurate responses, a lack of complete data, or a focus on certain events that were considered most memorable. To minimise retrospective recall, we used a timeline to aid participants in remembering events accurately and employed contextual grounding before discussing each life period. The timeline also helped define specific timeframes for our questions (Lieblich et al., 1998). Furthermore, additional limitations included relatively low participant numbers within each distinct life transition period, which might limit the generalisability of the findings. These limitations collectively suggest a need for cautious interpretation of the findings and highlight areas for improvement in future research.

Notwithstanding study limitations, current findings have potential implications for practice and intervention design. Most importantly, the findings point to the need for targeted interventions that are tailored to the challenges and opportunities presented by salient life transitions. For example, interventions for school children could focus on enhancing the quality of physical education to improve subjective norms, while strategies for new parents could incorporate PA into childcare routines to mitigate the reduction in PBC.

Current findings also open several avenues for future research. Given the dynamic nature of people’s beliefs and behaviours across different life transitions, longitudinal designs could offer more in-depth insights into these evolving relationships over time. This approach also minimises recall biases. Further, future studies could investigate the interplay between multiple background factors, such as socioeconomic status or social support systems, and their influence on PA behaviour within life transitions. Future research might also benefit from recruiting a more diverse sample, for example, different cultural groups, to test the applicability of the observed patterns in various populations. Additionally, qualitative methods can be complemented with quantitative approaches, such as network analysis, to verify the significance of variables at different life stages.

The findings have practical implications for designing tailored, contextually relevant interventions. Recognising the impact of background factors on PA behaviour allows for more precise interventions using social cognition techniques during life transitions. This study highlights opportunities to sustain or increase PA within these transitions. For instance, improving physical education quality in schools can foster positive PA attitudes early on. Similarly, integrating PA into childcare routines for new parents can address their reduced sense of behavioural control. By aligning interventions with individuals’ life situations, we enhance their relevance and effectiveness, increasing engagement and benefit.

This study has generated insights into how life transitions reshape PA beliefs and behaviour across life. Key shifts in social roles and associated changes in occupational roles, recreational habits, household responsibilities and transportation patterns coalesce to redefine individuals’ PA beliefs and behaviour. These findings underscore the interplay between life transitions and PA, advancing our understanding of PA’s complexity throughout life, and setting the stage for more in-depth exploration in future studies, and advocating for tailored, transition-sensitive interventions rather than generic solutions.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-hpq-10.1177_13591053241272262 – Supplemental material for The influence of life transitions on Danish adults’ physical activity beliefs and behaviour: A qualitative study

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-hpq-10.1177_13591053241272262 for The influence of life transitions on Danish adults’ physical activity beliefs and behaviour: A qualitative study by Birgitte Westerskov Dalgas, Kyra Hamilton, Karsten Elmose-Østerlund and Thomas Bredahl in Journal of Health Psychology

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable contribution to this article from the project managers of the research project Bjarne Ibsen and Jens Høyer-Kruse A special mention also to Martin Hagger for comments and expert supervision of the study.

Author contributions

BWD, KH, TB and KEØ contributed to study concept and design; BWD and KEØ contributed to participant recruitment and/or data collection; BWD, KH and TB contributed to the analysis and interpretation of data; and BWD, KH, TB and KEØ contributed to the preparation of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Data sharing statement

Data are not publicly available to preserve individuals’ privacy under the European General Data Protection Regulation. Data is available on request. Ethics approval, participant permissions and all other relevant approvals were granted for this data-sharing.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Nordea Foundation [grant number 02-2019-00025].

Ethics approval

We conducted the study according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was granted by the Institutional Review Board of University of Southern Denmark, where the authors are employed prior to participant recruitment. The approval was granted on 08.11.2019 with reference number 10.680.

Informed consent

All individual participants included in the study provided informed consent.

ORCID iDs

Birgitte Westerskov Dalgas

Kyra Hamilton

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