The relationship between social support and life satisfaction in adolescents after Kahramanmaraş earthquakes: Serial mediation of resilience and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the relationship between perceived social support and life satisfaction among adolescents who experienced the 6 February 2023 Kahramanmaraş-centered earthquakes, in the context of the serial mediation roles of psychological resilience and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. The study included a total of 692 high school students (mean age = 15.62, SD = 1.29) enrolled in schools in Malatya, one of the provinces most affected by the earthquakes. The data were collected using the Student’s Life Satisfaction Scale, the Brief Resilience Scale, the Perceived Social Support Scale, and the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Scale. In the preliminary analyses, independent samples t-tests, one-way ANOVAs, and Pearson correlation analyses were used. The serial mediation model, in which social support was the independent variable, life satisfaction was the dependent variable, and psychological resilience and PTSD were the mediating variables, respectively, was tested using Model 6 of the PROCESS macro. The findings revealed that perceived social support in adolescents significantly predicts life satisfaction in a positive direction, and that psychological resilience and PTSD play a mediating role in the relationship between social support and life satisfaction. Our results suggest that, in the context of serial mediation, increased social support following the earthquake is associated with enhanced psychological resilience. Increased psychological resilience, in turn, predicts a decrease in PTSD levels, which is linked to higher life satisfaction. These findings suggest that post-disaster mental health interventions should prioritize strengthening adolescents’ social support networks and resilience capacities to reduce PTSD and promote long-term psychological well-being.

Keywords

social support life satisfaction resilience PTSD earthquake disaster adolescent

Introduction

On February 6, 2023, two devastating earthquakes with magnitudes of Mw 7.7 and Mw 7.6 struck Kahramanmaraş and surrounding provinces in Türkiye, resulting in what has been recorded as the most devastating disaster in recent history (International Blue Crescent (IBC), 2023; International Organization for Migration (IOM), 2023). In addition to the extensive structural damage and significant loss of life, these types of earthquakes have also caused profound psychological impacts on the affected populations, particularly on adolescents (Margolin et al., 2010; Tian et al., 2014). It is critical to understand how adolescents adapt after such traumatic events and to identify mechanisms that will promote better mental health. In this context, the main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between social support and life satisfaction in adolescents who experienced an earthquake and the mediating roles of psychological resilience and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in this relationship.

Natural disasters are life events that cause significant structural and psychological damage to the affected populations (Houlihan et al., 2008). Earthquakes are a global public health problem with their unpredictable nature and wide impact area. These disasters often occur without any clear warning and lead to severe injuries, deaths, and destruction. In the aftermath of an earthquake, individuals face a range of psychological problems such as PTSD, anxiety, and depression (Altindag et al., 2005; Hicks et al., 2022). In earthquakes, children and adolescents are seen as vulnerable due to their developmental characteristics, weakened social support systems, and greater dependence on adults (Margolin et al., 2010). Long-term psychiatric problems can emerge in children and adolescents following an earthquake (Tian et al., 2014). It is reported that earthquake survivors experience psychological problems three times more frequently than the general population (Montazeri et al., 2005). Such mental health challenges can negatively affect adolescents’ overall well-being and life satisfaction (Bucciol and Zarri, 2020; Houlihan et al., 2008).

Although disasters pose significant psychological risks, adolescents may not all react to traumatic events in the same way. Recent studies in positive psychology emphasize shifting the focus from negative outcomes alone to also exploring protective factors that can buffer the adverse effects of trauma (Karatzias et al., 2013; Pavot and Diener, 2008). Perceived social support is one such factor that plays a critical role in helping individuals cope with stress and traumatic experiences (Cohen and Wills, 1985; Zimet et al., 1988). A strong network of social support can enhance feelings of belonging and security, which are especially vital for adolescents in the aftermath of disasters (Cohen and Wills, 1985; Pidgeon et al., 2014). In this way, perceived social support not only helps reduce fear and helplessness but also fosters the development of psychological resilience by providing protective resources and strengthening coping capacities (Fergus and Zimmerman, 2005; Lök and Bademli, 2021; Wang et al., 2018). This resilience, in turn, may act as an additional buffer that lowers the risk of PTSD symptoms and contributes to higher levels of life satisfaction among adolescents facing adversity (Cengiz and Peker, 2024; Paul et al., 2015; Sippel et al., 2015).

Psychological resilience is well positioned in the literature as a protective factor to maintain well-being after disasters (Kanbay et al., 2025). Psychological resilience is defined as a dynamic capacity that enables individuals to cope with stressors and negative life experiences. Psychological resilience is a critical component to facilitate adolescents to cope with the uncertainty and psychological burden following natural disasters that cause great destruction (Doğan, 2015; Smith et al., 2008). According to resilience theory, protective factors such as family and peer support are a driving force in building and sustaining resilience by providing adolescents with the necessary social and environmental resources to buffer the negative effects of trauma (Fergus and Zimmerman, 2005; Liu et al., 2017). Empirical evidence supports that higher levels of perceived social support are positively associated with increased psychological resilience, which in turn accelerates and strengthens individuals to develop more effective coping strategies and achieve better mental health outcomes in the face of adversity (Lök and Bademli, 2021; Pidgeon et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2018). Following earthquakes, psychological resilience may pave the way for adolescents to adapt to disrupted routines, manage stress and uncertainty, and maintain a higher sense of well-being and life satisfaction (Gundogan, 2021; Wu et al., 2022).

It is well known that PTSD is one of the most frequently observed psychological reactions among individuals due to exposure to traumatic events such as natural disasters. PTSD is a persistent emotional response characterized by re-experiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal symptoms in response to a traumatic event or severe environmental stressor (Tian et al., 2014). Previous research provides lines of evidence that inadequate social support may weaken resilience, which in turn may increase the risk of PTSD symptoms by intensifying emotions such as fear, helplessness, and perceived loss of resources (Altindag et al., 2005; Pietrzak et al., 2010). Within the framework of the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, social support and psychological resilience can serve as protective resources that help mitigate PTSD symptoms by enhancing adolescents’ sense of safety and capacity to cope with stress (Hobfoll, 1989, 2012). Studies have also demonstrated that higher PTSD symptom levels are associated with lower life satisfaction, emphasizing the need to examine PTSD as a mediating factor in the relationship between protective factors and adolescents’ overall well-being (Houlihan et al., 2008; Karatzias et al., 2013). Understanding how PTSD symptoms interact with social support and resilience is, therefore, essential for developing comprehensive post-disaster mental health interventions.

Despite numerous studies highlighting the separate effects of social support, psychological resilience, and PTSD on adolescents’ mental health after disasters, to our knowledge, no empirical study has yet examined how these factors interact within an integrated model, especially in the context of the devastating 2023 earthquakes in Türkiye. Considering the developmental sensitivity of adolescence and the potential for long-term psychological effects following such traumatic events, clarifying these complex pathways is crucial. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the relationship between perceived social support and life satisfaction among adolescents who experienced the Kahramanmaraş earthquakes and to investigate the sequential mediating roles of psychological resilience and PTSD symptoms in this relationship. By providing empirical evidence for these relationships, this study seeks to contribute to the development of more comprehensive, evidence-based psychosocial interventions that can strengthen protective resources and promote well-being among adolescents facing similar large-scale disasters in the future. Based on these insights, our research hypotheses are outlined as follows:

H1: Social support is positively associated with life satisfaction among adolescents

H2: Psychological resilience plays a mediating role in the association between social support and life satisfaction.

H3: PTSD plays a mediating role in the association between social support and life satisfaction.

H4: Psychological resilience and PTSD play a serial mediation role in the association between social support and life satisfaction.

Method

A cross-sectional design was adopted in this study, as it aimed to evaluate the psychological effects of the disaster within a short period using a large sample. This design was considered appropriate to examine the psychosocial status at a specific point in time, particularly to explore how social support, psychological resilience, and PTSD symptoms are interrelated among adolescents affected by a large-scale disaster such as an earthquake. A model was proposed based on the study’s hypotheses (Figure 1). In this model, social support was considered the independent variable, psychological resilience and PTSD were included as mediating variables, and life satisfaction was the dependent variable.

Participants and procedures

The participants of this study consisted of 692 adolescents attending high school in Malatya, one of the cities where the earthquakes of 6 February 2023 were felt most severely. While the February 6, 2023 earthquakes caused extensive destruction across a wide geographical area, the province of Malatya was selected as the study site because it was among the four most severely affected provinces out of the 10 officially designated disaster zones. According to the IBC report, 1246 people died in Malatya during these earthquakes, and 42% of the city’s population had to migrate to different provinces (IBC, 2023). The city experienced significant structural damage, population displacement, and disruption of daily life. In addition to its high impact level, Malatya was logistically accessible, and local educational institutions were willing to collaborate, which enabled systematic data collection under safe and organized conditions. Ethics approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Bingöl Üniversity. Afterward, necessary permissions were obtained from local education authorities to conduct research in high schools.

Participants were determined by a clustered sampling method. In this context, high schools in the central districts of Malatya were accepted as a cluster, and eight schools were randomly selected from these schools and included in the study. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were established for student participation in the study from the selected schools. The inclusion criteria are as follows: (1) having experienced the 6 February 2023 Kahramanmaraş-centered earthquakes, (2) being between the ages of 12–18 and continuing high school education, (3) parents of students under the age of 16, and students aged 16 and over volunteering to participate in the study, and (4) absence of any known severe mental health condition, based on information provided by school psychological counselors and guidance staff. The exclusion criteria are as follows: (1) having been previously diagnosed with any psychiatric disorder, based on information provided by school psychological counselors and guidance staff, (2) having experienced a serious traumatic event before the earthquake.

A cluster sampling method was employed to recruit participants who met the specified inclusion and exclusion criteria. To collect the data, a researcher visited eight schools in the autumn semester of 2023–2024, six months after the earthquakes, and informed the participants about the purpose of the study. Our measurement tools are based on self-report. Several strategies were employed to mitigate bias in self-report scales (Latkin et al., 2016; Van de Mortel, 2008). In this context, participants were informed about the purpose of the study and the research process before answering the questionnaires, assured that their personal information would be kept confidential, and reminded that they could withdraw from the study at any time. A total of 751 adolescent participants completed the questionnaire. However, 59 participants were excluded from the study: 12 due to incomplete responses and 47 for not meeting the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Thus, the study included data from 692 adolescents. The participants’ sociodemographic characteristics and information on their earthquake-related experiences are presented in detail in Table 1.

Table 1.

Differentiation in life satisfaction according to demographic variables and being affected by the earthquake.

Characteristics	Categories	N (%)	Mean (SD)	Life satisfaction
Characteristics	Categories	N (%)	Mean (SD)	Mean (SD)	t or F (p)
Gender	Female	398 (57.5)		22.163 (8.094)	−2.139
Gender	Male	294 (42.5)		23.479 (7.877)	0.033*
Age	13	28 (4.0)		23.178 (7.850)	1.544
	14	144 (20.8)		23.805 (8.097)	0.174
	15	128 (18.8)	15.62 (1.288)	22.781 (8.029)
	16	178 (25.7)		23.123 (7.918)
	17	189 (27.3)		21.619 (8.097)
	18	25 (3.6)		21.160 (7.481)
Family income	Low	111 (16.0)		18.909 (6.685)	45.067
	Average	537 (77.6)		22.776 (7.734)	0.000***
	High	44 (6.4)		31.681 (7.407)
Relocation after an earthquake	Yes	286 (41.3)		22.671 (7.283)	−0.141
Relocation after an earthquake	No	409 (58.7)		22.758 (8.515)	0.888
Being trapped under rubble/injured	Yes	40 (5.8)		18.925 (6.611)	−3.103
Being trapped under rubble/injured	No	652 (94.2)		22.955 (8.048)	0.002*
Lost a relative	Yes	52 (7.5)		19.211 (7.118)	−3.304
Lost a relative	No	640 (92.5)		23.007 (8.030)	0.001**

Note. M: mean; SD: standard deviation.

p < 0.05. **p < 0.01.*** p < 0.001.

Measures

In the study, demographic information forms including questions about gender, age, grade, family income, whether the students were relocated after the earthquake and whether there was a loss in relative, Student’s Life Satisfaction Scale, The Brief Resilience Scale, Perceived Social Support Scale, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Scale were used to collect data.

Student’s life satisfaction scale

This scale, developed by Huebner (1991), is a self-report scale based on general life satisfaction that enables students to evaluate their lives holistically. Kaya (2011) adapted the scale to Turkish with validity and reliability analyses conducted on a sample of adolescents. It comprises 7 items and uses a 6-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 6 = Strongly Agree). The internal consistency coefficient of the scale was 0.88, and the test-retest reliability was calculated as 0.83 based on measurements taken at 3-week intervals (Kaya, 2011). In this study, the internal consistency coefficient was calculated to be 0.83. The structure of the scale was confirmed through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the study sample (χ²/df = 2.75, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.065, and SRMR = 0.046).

The brief resilience scale

The scale developed by Smith et al. (2008) is designed to measure individuals’ psychological resilience. This self-report scale was adapted into Turkish by Doğan (2015). It uses a 6-point Likert scale (1 = Not at all appropriate to 6 = Completely appropriate) comprising six items. Higher scores on the scale indicate greater psychological resilience. In studies with four different sample groups, including two healthy and two patient groups, the internal consistency reliability coefficient of the scale ranged from 0.81 to 0.91 (Doğan, 2015). In this study, the internal consistency coefficient was found to be 0.72. In addition, the structure of the scale was confirmed as a result of CFA on the sample group of the study (χ²/df = 2.84, CFI: 0.95, RMSEA: 0.056, and SRMR: 0.038).

Perceived social support

This scale, developed by Zimet et al. (1988), aims to evaluate the adequacy of social support subjectively received from three sources: family, friends, and a significant other. Adapted into Turkish by Eker (2001), the scale consists of 12 items scored on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = Absolutely no to 7 = Absolutely yes). Higher scores indicate a greater perceived level of social support. The internal consistency coefficient for this study is 0.88. The structure of the scale was confirmed as a result of CFA on the sample group of the study (χ²/df = 2.97, CFI: 0.95, RMSEA: 0.072, and SRMR: 0.054).

Posttraumatic stress disorder-short form

This self-report scale, developed by LeBeau et al. (2014) based on DSM-5 diagnostic criteria, includes negative cognitive and emotional reactions; it also includes behaviors such as withdrawal, avoidance, and hypervigilance. Adapted into Turkish by Evren et al. (2016), this 9-item scale uses a 5-point Likert scale (0 = Not at all to 4 = All the time). The total scores range from 0 to 36. The internal consistency coefficient for this study is 0.85. The structure of the scale was confirmed as a result of CFA on the sample group of the study (χ²/df = 1.96, CFI: 0.96, RMSEA: 0.052, and SRMR: 0.032).

Data analysis

SPSS 24.0 and the PROCESS Macro for SPSS 3.5 were used for data analysis in this study. Initially, univariate analyses (independent t-test and one-way ANOVA) were conducted to compare adolescents’ life satisfaction based on demographic characteristics and the impact of the earthquake. Secondly, descriptive and Pearson correlation analyses were performed concerning social support, psychological resilience, PTSD, and life satisfaction. Subsequently, multiple mediation analysis was conducted using Model 6, as Hayes (2018) recommended for serial mediation, with the PROCESS macro in SPSS. In this analysis, gender, age, family income, displacement, being trapped/injured, and experiencing loss were included as control variables. The bootstrapping method based on 5000 samples was also employed to estimate the mediation analyses’ 95% confidence intervals (CI). The effects were considered significant if the confidence intervals did not contain zero.

Before conducting multiple mediation analyses, Harman’s single-factor test, a statistical method recommended against the problem of common method variance (Hulland et al., 2018), was used. In this test, it is concluded that OMV is at a critical level if a single factor emerges as a result of an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) including all items belonging to the constructs (eigenvalue greater than 1) or if a dominant factor structure explaining more than 50% of the variance explained is detected (Bakir and Doğan, 2021). As a result of the analysis, a 10-factor structure was obtained, and it was observed that the first factor with the highest eigenvalue explained 32.41% of the variance. Therefore, it was concluded that the common method variance problem was not serious. Additionally, the multicollinearity between the variables was assessed by calculating the variance inflation factor (VIF) and examining the autocorrelation of the dependent variable using the Durbin-Watson index. As a result of the analysis, it was determined that the VIF values ranged from 1.32 to 3.21, and the Durbin-Watson index ranged from 1.84 to 1.99. Therefore, it is confirmed that there is no multicollinearity and autocorrelation of the dependent variable.

Findings

Demographic findings and comparison tests

We begin by presenting the differences in life satisfaction among adolescents according to demographic variables and their status of being affected by the earthquake. Univariate analysis results are presented in Table 1.

As seen in Table 1, the life satisfaction of male adolescents after the earthquake is significantly higher than that of female adolescents (p < 0.05), those with high family income are significantly higher than those with low and medium income (p < 0.001), those who did not experience any physical injury in the earthquake are significantly higher than those who were trapped under rubble/injured (p < 0.01) and those who did not experience lost a relative are significantly higher than those who did (p < 0.01). The life satisfaction of adolescents does not differ significantly according to age and relocation status after the earthquake.

Correlation results and descriptive statistics

The results of correlation analyses between the main variables of the study, mean and standard deviation are presented in Table 2. Perceived social support in adolescents is positively correlated with psychological resilience (r = 0.131, p < 0.01) and life satisfaction (r = 0.380, p < 0.001) and negatively correlated with PTSD (r = −0.228, p < 0.001). Psychological resilience is negatively associated with PTSD (r = −0.355, p < 0.001), positively associated with life satisfaction (r = 0.219, p < 0.001) and PTSD is negatively associated with life satisfaction (r = −0.366, p < 0.001).

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis results.

Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4
1. Social support	53.67	16.596	1
2. Psychological resilience	17.98	2.478	0.131**	1
3. PTSD	13.81	7.373	−0.228***	−0.355***	1
4. Life satisfaction	22.72	8.024	0.380***	0.219***	−0.366***	1

Note. M: mean; SD: standard deviation.

***

p < 0.001. **p < 0.01.

Serial mediation test

We utilized Model 6, proposed by Hayes (2018) to test the serial mediation model, examining how psychological resilience and PTSD mediate the relationship between social support and life satisfaction among adolescents after the earthquake. The regression-based results with a 95% confidence interval (CI) are presented in Table 3, and the serial mediation model is illustrated in Figure 2. Gender, age, family income, relocation, being trapped under rubble/injured, and loss of a relative were included as control variables. Social support positively predicts psychological resilience (B = 0.18, p < 0.001) and life satisfaction (B = 0.148, p < 0.001), and negatively predicts PTSD (B = −0.179, p < 0.001). Psychological resilience negatively predicts PTSD (B = −0.861, p < 0.001) and positively predicts life satisfaction (B = 0.252, p < 0.001). Finally, PTSD negatively predicts life satisfaction (B = −0.270, p < 0.001).

Table 3.

Regression-based results of serial mediation analyses.

Criterion	Predictors	R	R ²	F	B	t	95% CI
Psychological resilience	Gender	0.245	0.060	6.263	0.873	4.6783***	0.507, 1.240
	Age				−0.074	−1.070	−0.212, 0.062
	Family income				0.285	1.316	−0.140, 0.711
	Relocation after an earthquake				−0.207	−1.108	−0.574, 0.159
	Being trapped under rubble/injured				−0.325	−0.809	−1.116, 0.464
	Lost a relative				0.549	1.539	−0.151, 1.250
	Social support				0.18	4.689***	0.007, 0.029
PTSD	Gender	0.490	0.240	26.991	−2.84	−5.594***	−3.83, −1.843
	Age				0.751	4.013***	0.383, 1.118
	Family income				−0.241	−0.415	−1.383, 0.900
	Relocation after an earthquake				−0.326	−0.651	−1.309, 0.656
	Being trapped under rubble/injured				−4.468	−4.145***	−.6.584, −2.352
	Lost a relative				−1.129	−1.18	−3.009, 0.749
	Social support				−0.179	−4.247***	−0.208, −0.049
	Psychological resilience				−0.861	−8.417***	−.1.062, −0.660
Life satisfaction	Gender	0.522	0.272	28.414	−0.166	−0.300	−1.252, 0.920
	Age				−0.445	−2.204	−0.841, −0.048
	Family income				3.068	4.949***	1.851, 4.285
	Relocation after an earthquake				0.126	0.236	−0.921, 1.174
	Being trapped under rubble/injured				1.099	0.945	−.1.183, 3.382
	Lost a relative				1.035	1.014	−0.969, 3.040
	Social support				0.148	9.05***	0.116–0.180
	Psychological resilience				0.252	3.205***	0.027–0.477
	PTSD				−0.270	−6.627***	−0.350–−0.190

***

p < 0.001.

Bootstrap test of mediating effect

A bootstrap test with 5000 bias-corrected bootstrapping samples was performed to obtain 95% CI for direct, indirect, and total effects, as presented in Table 4. The effect of social support on life satisfaction was assessed in three ways. First, the indirect effect of social support on adolescents’ life satisfaction through psychological resilience was significant (B = 0.0046, 95% CI: 0.0002–0.0109). Secondly, the indirect effect of social support on adolescents’ life satisfaction through PTSD was also significant (B = 0.0214, 95% CI: 0.0112–0.0332). Third, the indirect effect of social support on adolescents’ life satisfaction through the serial mediation of psychological resilience and PTSD was significant (B = 0.0043, 95% CI: 0.0014–0.0079). Additionally, the direct effect (B = 0.1481, 95% CI: 0.1160–0.1803) and total effect (B = .1784, 95% CI: 0.1458–0.2111) of social support on life satisfaction were significant, indicating that perceived social support has both direct and cumulative indirect contributions to adolescents’ life satisfaction in the post-earthquake context.

Table 4.

CI for multiple mediation analyses and Bootstrapping direct, indirect and total effect.

Effect	B	Boot SE	Bootstrapping 95% CI
Total effect (SS)	0.1784	0.016	(0.1458, 0.2111)
Direct effect (SS)	0.1481	0.016	(0.1160, 0.1803)
Indirect effect (SS-PR-LS)	0.0046	0.006	(0.0002, 0.0109)
Indirect effect (SS-PTSD-LS)	0.0214	0.005	(0.0112, 0.0332)
Indirect effect (SS-PR-PTSD-LS)	0.0043	0.001	(0.0014, 0.0079)

Note. SS: social support; PR: psychological resilience; PTSD: post-traumatic stress disorder; LS: life satisfaction; 95% CI: 95% confidence intervals; Bootstrap sample size: 5.000.

Discussion

This study examined the relationship between social support and life satisfaction among adolescents exposed to earthquakes in a province of Türkiye, as well as the mediating roles of psychological resilience and PTSD. After controlling for factors such as gender, age, family income, being trapped/injured, and the death of a family member, our findings showed that social support has a positive direct relationship with life satisfaction in adolescents. Additionally, our mediation analysis results confirmed the serial mediating role of psychological resilience and PTSD in the relationship between social support and life satisfaction in adolescents.

The first hypothesis of our study was that there is a positive relationship between social support and life satisfaction in adolescents. Our analysis results showed a positive and significant relationship between social support and life satisfaction in adolescents. This indicates that the more social support adolescents receive, the higher their life satisfaction may be. A study conducted in Croatia by Bakic and Ajdukovic (2021), which supports our findings, concluded that social support sources negatively predict PTSD and depression, while life satisfaction is positively predicted. Similarly, research examining the relationship between social support and life satisfaction following an earthquake confirms the positive association between these variables (Di Bucci et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2016; Ke et al., 2010). According to COR theory, adolescents who experience a loss of resources after the earthquake can compensate for these losses through their social networks (family, friends, significant others) and better meet their psychological and social needs (Hobfoll, 1989, 2012). Considering research findings obtained from diverse cultural contexts, the current study extends the COR theory by providing empirical evidence from the Turkish sample. In this regard, our findings highlight the cross-cultural relevance of post-disaster social support systems in enhancing life satisfaction. Specifically, in the aftermath of large-scale disasters, social support appears to play a crucial role in helping adolescents regain their sense of belonging and security. Given that social relationships constitute a central developmental component of adolescence, emotional sharing and empathy through social networks may serve as key mechanisms in fostering life satisfaction during the recovery process. Thus, consistent with COR theory, both the present findings and previous research results (Di Bucci et al., 2023; Kanbay et al., 2025) imply that facilitating adolescents’ access to social support systems in a post-disaster context can significantly contribute to their overall life satisfaction.

The second hypothesis of our study focused on the mediating role of psychological resilience in the relationship between social support and life satisfaction in adolescents. Consistent with previous studies (Khalid, 2021; Wu et al., 2022), our results indicate that psychological resilience significantly mediates the relationship between social support and life satisfaction. In other words, social support promotes higher life satisfaction by fostering psychological resilience in adolescents who have experienced an earthquake. This finding supports previous research (Güler et al., 2024; Huang et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2022) emphasizing that social support is a necessary resource for psychological resilience and reinforces resilience theory. Resources from family, friends, and social environments contribute to individuals’ psychological resilience in coping with adverse situations (Fergus and Zimmerman, 2005; Liu et al., 2017). According to Baker et al. (2003), social connections are associated with resilience, promoting positive outcomes for adolescents and children. Supporting this view, our results emphasize the positive relationship between psychological resilience and life satisfaction in adolescents who have experienced an earthquake. Resilient individuals can think optimistically, develop positive emotions, and maintain a more cheerful and optimistic outlook on life when faced with challenges (Tugade and Fredrickson, 2004). Psychological resilience can contribute to adolescents’ life satisfaction by enabling them to recover mentally after an earthquake. Indeed, research following the Wenchuan Earthquake found that resilience helped adolescents psychologically recover after disasters (Xu and Ou, 2014). This relationship suggests that resilient adolescents can enhance their ability to maintain psychological well-being, resulting in higher life satisfaction. Therefore, we emphasize the importance of strategies and intervention programs to support the psychological resilience of adolescents and promote life satisfaction in the aftermath of disasters. In addition, considering that social support promotes psychological resilience, we argue that intervention programs and strategies to be developed should include components to strengthen social support networks.

The third hypothesis of the study focused on the mediating role of PTSD in the relationship between social support and life satisfaction. Our findings revealed that PTSD symptoms significantly mediate this relationship. This suggests that social support may alleviate PTSD symptoms in adolescents who have experienced an earthquake, which in turn may enhance their life satisfaction. PTSD is considered one of the key factors that undermine life satisfaction in children (Veronese et al., 2025). Taking into account that social support is a strong protective factor in reducing PTSD symptoms (McGuire et al., 2018), it can be argued that social support fosters life satisfaction indirectly by mitigating PTSD symptoms. Moreover, adolescents who do not receive adequate social support after a disaster may struggle to cope with the fear, helplessness, and horror triggered by the event, which can exacerbate PTSD symptoms (Tian et al., 2014). In contrast, higher levels of social support may function as a resource that promotes a sense of self-worth. This increase in adolescents’ self-evaluation can contribute to the development of a strong sense of self-efficacy in coping with adversity (Carver and Scheier, 2001). Therefore, social support may be a key factor in buffering the negative impact of PTSD symptoms on life satisfaction.

The final hypothesis of the study focused on the serial mediating role of psychological resilience and PTSD symptoms. Our results confirmed the mediating effect of psychological resilience and PTSD in the relationship between social support and life satisfaction among adolescents. More specifically, our findings indicated that while social support is directly associated with life satisfaction in adolescents, it also strengthens psychological resilience, making individuals more resistant to trauma. This increased resilience, in turn, reduces PTSD symptoms, thereby supporting life satisfaction. Indeed, the critical role of social support in enhancing life satisfaction, quality of life, and overall well-being has been consistently emphasized in previous research (Şahin et al., 2019). In this context, social support is conceptualized as a fundamental resource that sustains well-being and mitigates the adverse effects of stress through meaningful interpersonal relationships. The inverse relationship between psychological resilience and PTSD further reinforces the validity of the serial mediation model. Numerous studies have shown that individuals with higher psychological resilience exhibit lower sensitivity to trauma and manage negative emotional responses more effectively (Ying et al., 2014). Within this framework, psychological resilience serves as a cognitive and emotional buffer that reduces the impact of trauma, thereby alleviating PTSD symptoms and contributing to the maintenance of life satisfaction. At the core of this process lie personal resources, including self-worth, self-concept, and a growth-oriented mindset (Smith et al., 2008). Therefore, the serial mediation model demonstrates that social support first enhances psychological resilience, and this improvement in resilience reduces PTSD symptoms, which in turn indirectly supports life satisfaction. This highlights a multilayered protective mechanism in the post-disaster psychological adjustment processes of adolescents.

Limitations

Our study provides new, important, and comprehensive insights into the relationship between social support and life satisfaction in adolescents who have experienced an earthquake. However, like all empirical studies, this study has several limitations. Firstly, the data were collected using a cross-sectional design with self-report questionnaires. This approach makes it susceptible to recall and selection-observation biases and does not allow for establishing causal relationships between variables. The relationships revealed in this study should be interpreted at the level of correlation rather than causality. Future research could benefit from incorporating family and teacher reports to measure the independent variable of social support. Additionally, the effects of disorders such as PTSD can persist for many years following a disaster. Longitudinal and experimental studies on natural disasters could better elucidate the causal relationships between social support, psychological resilience, PTSD, and life satisfaction. Furthermore, potential moderator or mediator variables not controlled for in our study may have influenced the results. In this context, potential mediator and moderator variables such as personality traits, self-efficacy, coping strategies, and social relationships can be considered in future research. These variables may contribute to a better understanding of the changes in adolescents’ life satisfaction levels after the earthquake and to the development of more comprehensive interventions.

Conclusion

This study proposes and tests a conceptual model of the relationship between social support, psychological resilience, and PTSD in adolescents who have experienced an earthquake. Our results provide important insights into the direct and indirect effects of perceived social support on life satisfaction in adolescents. In this context, our research highlights the importance of perceived social support in promoting adolescent well-being after a disaster. However, our findings reveal that psychological resilience and PTSD act as critical mediators in influencing life satisfaction among adolescents. The current study offers a series of implications for policies and strategies to support adolescent well-being after a disaster. First, the findings emphasize the need to develop adolescents’ social support networks in policies developed after a disaster. This is because higher perceived social support is associated with higher life satisfaction, higher psychological resilience, and lower PTSD. Second, strengthening adolescents’ psychological resilience should be a priority when developing intervention programs. This is because our study has shown that psychological resilience in adolescents buffers PTSD and promotes life satisfaction. Finally, we emphasize the need to quickly establish the functionality of structures such as schools that facilitate adolescents’ access to social support networks after a disaster.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Cihangir Kaçmaz

Ethical considerations

All procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration. Ethics approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Bingöl University (Decision no: 33117789/044/118340).

Consent to participate

Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants or their legal guardian/next of kin. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study and the research process before answering the questionnaires, assured that their personal information would be kept confidential, and reminded that they could withdraw from the study at any time.

Consent for publication

The participants or their legal guardians/next of kin have also given their consent for the publication of anonymized data derived from this study. The authors confirm that no identifiable personal information is included in the manuscript, ensuring the confidentiality and privacy of all participants.

Author contributions

RK: Investigation (data collection), writing-original draft, methodology, writing review, and editing. CK: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation (data collection), writing-original draft. OTC: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation (data collection), formal analysis, writing-original draft, writing review, validation, writing-review, and editing.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability statement

The data that supports the findings of this article cannot be made publicly available because of ethical reasons. The data are available upon reasonable request from the authors.

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