The role of self-compassion,motivation to exercise,and exercising,in the association between women’s self-efficacy and psychological well-being

Abstract

The present study explored women’s psychological well-being in the context of exercise, focusing on the relationship between self-efficacy and well-being, with intrinsic motivation to exercise as a mediator. Additionally, the study examined the moderating roles of self-compassion in the link between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, and of actual exercising in the link between intrinsic motivation and well-being. Online structured questionnaires were completed by 360 women aged 18–65, forming a non-random sample. Self-efficacy was positively associated with well-being, and intrinsic motivation to exercise partially mediated this relationship. Self-compassion moderated the link between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise, whereby the positive association between these variables was stronger at high levels of self-compassion than at medium levels and not significant at low levels of self-compassion. However, actual exercising did not moderate the association between intrinsic motivation and well-being.

Keywords

exercise self-efficacy intrinsic motivation to exercise psychological well-being self-compassion

Introduction

The World Health Organization (2024a) stresses the importance of physical activity for improving and preserving many central life dimensions such as cognitive abilities, physical health, and psychological well-being. Physical activity performed as part of one’s daily routine differs from purposefully initiated physical activity performed deliberately during one’s leisure time, known as exercise (WHO, 2024b). Nonetheless, global data indicate that women are less likely than men to meet recommended physical activity levels, largely due to gendered social structures and cultural norms that affect access and participation (WHO, 2020). Due to the importance of promoting a healthy lifestyle among women, the current study focuses on this population and specifically on their psychological well-being. Given that psychological well-being is a core outcome of engaging in physical activity and a key component of women’s overall health, it serves as the primary focus of the current study.

Self-efficacy is recognized as one of the factors explaining well-being (Bandura, 1997). This concept, rooted in social cognitive theory, refers to a person’s belief in their ability to overcome obstacles and achieve desired goals (Bandura, 1997). Accordingly, higher self-efficacy has been linked to greater engagement in health promoting behaviors (Sequeira et al., 2025) and enhanced psychological well-being (Bandura, 1997; Micky Olutende et al., 2017). One key mechanism through which self-efficacy may affect well-being is intrinsic motivation, particularly in the context of sustained behaviors such as exercising.

Therefore, the present study aims to examine the associations between women’s self-efficacy, their intrinsic motivation to exercise, and their psychological well-being. Intrinsic motivation to exercise relates to engaging in exercise for the purpose of pleasure, interest, and self-satisfaction derived from this activity. Compared to other types of motivation (extrinsic motivation and amotivation), intrinsic motivation was found to be more strongly associated with engaging and persisting in exercise (Blecharz et al., 2015). Therefore, its role as a mediator of the association between women’s self-efficacy and their well-being was examined. Furthermore, when examining the association between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise, the moderating role of self-compassion was investigated. Self-compassion reflects one’s ability to be kind and understanding toward oneself in times of difficulty (Neff, 2003) and constitutes a resource promoting positive coping with difficulties and challenges (Breines and Chen, 2012; Raque-Bogdan et al., 2019). The current study also examines the moderating role of engaging in exercise in the association between women’s motivation to exercise and their well-being. Namely, does intrinsic motivation to exercise explain women’s well-being only if they engage in exercise in practice?

While prior work has addressed individual components of the associations among self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, engaging in exercise, and psychological well-being, an integrated framework encompassing these constructs has yet to be evaluated as a unified model. Hence, the aim of the current study is to examine the contribution of mental-cognitive elements in women’s lives, referring to self-related appraisal and emotional processes (self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation to exercise, and self-compassion), as well as engagement in exercise, to explaining their psychological well-being.

Psychological well-being

Psychological well-being is a positive mental state where people’s general psychological functioning allows them to realize their potential, deal with life pressures, work productively, and contribute to the community (Diener et al., 2010). In the present study, psychological well-being was defined in line with the construct captured by the Flourishing Scale (Diener et al., 2010), which reflects central facets of psychological well-being including purpose, competence, and positive functioning. This construct constitutes a major component of one’s physical and mental health (Diener et al., 2017) and is a central focus of positive psychology, which explores human forces, strengths, and abilities that allow one to prosper, grow, and experience happiness (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). One of the mental-cognitive elements found to explain well-being is self-efficacy (Wang et al., 2022). Self-efficacy has been identified as a significant resource for well-being, particularly in the context of health-promoting behaviors such as exercise (Garstang et al., 2026; Karademas, 2007; Wang et al., 2022).

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy reflects individuals’ belief in their ability to successfully perform the actions needed to achieve a desired outcome (Bandura, 1997). It affects the choice of activity, the effort invested in the chosen activity, and one’s perseverance in this activity. People characterized by high self-efficacy work harder and persevere longer even when encountering obstacles, compared to those who doubt their abilities (Bandura, 1997). Thus, self-efficacy helps deal with challenges and persevere in achieving goals and contributes to more positive feelings and perceptions, reflected in greater well-being (Kestler-Peleg et al., 2023; Waddington, 2023). In addition, self-efficacy has been proven to be associated with socioeconomic status, insofar as access to opportunities and mastery experiences shapes individuals’ perceived ability to engage in health-promoting behaviors (Bandura, 1997).

According to social-cognitive theory, people characterized by high self-efficacy tend to take on challenges with higher levels of confidence and resilience (Bandura, 1997). Moreover, they tend to be characterized by stronger intrinsic motivation to engage in goal-oriented behaviors and to withstand challenges (Pelletier et al., 2013), of which an example is intrinsic motivation to exercise.

Intrinsic motivation to exercise

Motivation describes processes that lead individuals to take action to achieve their goals. It relates to the desire to invest time and effort in a certain activity even if it might involve difficulties, high costs, and failure (American Psychological Association, 2018). Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan, 2000), which focuses on identifying the psychological mechanisms motivating one to act in a certain way, distinguishes between three main types of motivation. First, intrinsic motivation, which reflects one’s desire to be involved in an activity, rooted in the free wish to enjoy the activity and be challenged by it. Intrinsically motivated activity involves no expectations of the activity’s outcomes and is accompanied by a sense of autonomy to carry out the task. In contrast, extrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity in order to obtain an external reward or avoid a negative consequence, rather than for the inherent enjoyment of the activity itself. Extrinsic motivation includes four subtypes (integrated regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and external regulation), which differ in their level of perceived autonomy or alternately the level of real or perceived constraint and compulsion accompanying an activity. The third type of motivation in SDT is amotivation, which relates to the state of having no desire to engage in an activity. According to SDT, a certain activity can derive from different types of motivation concurrently (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic motivation to exercise has been found related to higher quality of performance and greater perseverance in exercise than extrinsic motivation and amotivation (Blecharz et al., 2015). Hence, the current study focuses on intrinsic motivation to exercise.

Within the SDT framework, the Basic Psychological Needs Theory identifies competence, autonomy, and relatedness as core psychological needs. In this theory, the competence need refers to individuals’ sense of capability and effectiveness, a notion that conceptually aligns with self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Deci and Ryan, 2000). Accordingly, the present study focuses on the competence component of the Basic Psychological Needs Theory. Self-efficacy is one of the mental-cognitive elements found associated with intrinsic motivation to exercise. Thus, the greater one’s self-efficacy the more one’s belief in their ability to perform actions (Bandura, 1997), where this belief increases the intrinsic motivation that also derives from an intrinsic urge (Deci and Ryan, 2000). According to SDT, the more one’s motivation stems from a sense of autonomy rather than coercion, the more it promotes well-being (Ryan et al., 2021). Previous studies have documented the mediating role of intrinsic motivation in the association between self-efficacy and positive dimensions of well-being such as academic adjustment (Thomas et al., 2009) and work performance (Çetin and Aşkun, 2018). Nevertheless, as far as we know, the mediating role of intrinsic motivation to exercise in the association between women’s self-efficacy and their well-being has yet to be explored.

Life burdens and challenging experiences encountered by women, such as the home-work conflict, pregnancies, and childbirth, might reduce the pleasure they attach to engaging in exercise (Trübswasser et al., 2021) and thus hamper their intrinsic motivation to do so. These burdens are often accompanied by critical self-judgment, feelings of isolation, and over-identification with personal struggles, dimensions identified by Neff (2011) as central components of low self-compassion. In this context, the importance of self-compassion as a resource that might enhance the association between women’s self-efficacy and their intrinsic motivation to exercise is clarified.

Self-compassion

Self-compassion relates to people’s ability to be kind to themselves in situations of suffering, difficulty, or failure (Neff, 2011). It is characterized by the recognition that these are universal experiences that should be accepted rather than denied or disregarded. Understanding and non-judgmental acceptance of human suffering or difficulty involve identifying the pain and relating to it kindly, sensitively, and caringly, as one relates to a close friend or loved one (Neff, 2011). Self-compassion has also been found to facilitate high self-value, reduce self-criticism and negative self-speech, and encourage emotional regulation and skills of dealing with hardship (Zessin et al., 2015).

Moreover, a tendency has been found among people characterized by high levels of self-compassion to embrace thinking that is more growth-oriented; they show more readiness to explore and try out new activities and are less inclined to judge themselves harshly (Gilbert, 2005). In addition, positive associations have been found between self-compassion and self-efficacy (Liao et al., 2021), as well as between women’s self-compassion and their intrinsic motivation to exercise (Magnus et al., 2010). Self-compassion has also been shown to promote more balanced emotional responses and reduce maladaptive self-evaluative tendencies (Breines and Chen, 2012) and to support more adaptive self-regulation (Neff, 2011). These characteristics may create psychological conditions that enable individuals’ sense of capability to translate more effectively into intrinsic motivation. Accordingly, self-compassion might modify the association between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise, by alleviating the self-doubt and evaluative concerns that could otherwise undermine the drive to engage in an activity for the inherent pleasure it provides (Breines and Chen, 2012). Self-compassion may also be related to engaging in exercise, as it is associated with more adaptive ways of coping with barriers and challenges, which may be reflected in how individuals translate motivation into actual exercise behavior (Magnus et al., 2010).

Engaging in exercise

Physical activity is defined as any action that requires generating and expending energy by one’s physical systems (WHO, 2020). The World Health Organization reports a 20%–30% higher all-cause mortality risk among people who are not sufficiently active compared to those who are (WHO, 2024a). To achieve significant health benefits, it recommends that adults aged 18–64 engage in medium-intensity aerobic exercise for 150–300 minutes a week (such as fast walking or dynamic body shaping workouts) or in high-intensity aerobic exercise for 75–150 minutes a week (e.g. running, swimming, or training with heavy weights; WHO, 2020, 2024a). Compared to men, women tend to prefer shorter workouts and more moderate aerobic exercise, primarily walking (WHO, 2020, 2024a).

Women who engage in more exercise enjoy better well-being (WHO, 2024a). The beneficial impact of engaging in exercise is explained by various mechanisms such as the production of endorphins (Schmitter et al., 2020), reducing inflammation and increasing nerve growth, and reducing depression levels (Guérin et al., 2013). Nevertheless, many women do not engage in sufficient physical activity, with global estimates indicating that 32% of women do not meet the WHO’s minimum recommended activity levels (i.e. are considered insufficiently active), compared to 23% of men (WHO, 2020). The explanations for this avoidance are diverse and encompass social, economic, environmental, and personal elements (Hoare et al., 2017). These include barriers such as time constraints, competing responsibilities, fatigue, and difficulties balancing family and work life, particularly among mothers of young children (Monteiro et al., 2014). Moreover, prior research shows that patterns of physical activity, motivation, and perceived barriers vary across age groups, suggesting that age may moderate certain exercise-related relationships (Hoare et al., 2017; WHO, 2020).

For women interested in engaging in exercise, the challenges that make it hard for them to realize their desire may lead to feelings of frustration, guilt, and doubt in their ability to do so. Notably, even high levels of intrinsic motivation do not necessarily translate into actual participation in exercise, especially among women facing such structural and emotional barriers (Hoare et al., 2017; Monteiro et al., 2014). This distinction between wanting to exercise and being able to do so underscores the relevance of examining whether engaging in exercise modifies the association between intrinsic motivation and psychological well-being, as such barriers may undermine the hypothesized positive link.

Research hypotheses

Considering the literature review, the following hypotheses were formulated:

H₁1: A positive association will be found between women’s self-efficacy and their psychological well-being.

H₁2: Intrinsic motivation to exercise will mediate the association between women’s self-efficacy and their psychological well-being, such that a positive association will be found between perceived self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise, which in turn will be found positively associated with psychological well-being.

H₁3: Self-compassion will moderate the positive association between women’s self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise, such that this association will be higher at higher levels of self-compassion.

H₁4: Engaging in exercise will moderate the positive association between women’s intrinsic motivation to exercise and their psychological well-being, such that a stronger positive association will be found between intrinsic motivation to exercise and psychological well-being among women who engage in exercise compared to those who do not (for the research model see Figure 1).

Method

Research procedure

The study was carried out following approval from an institutional ethics committee for non-clinical research involving human participants. As part of the approval process, the study protocol, recruitment strategy, informed-consent procedure, data-protection measures, and questionnaire materials were reviewed to ensure compliance with ethical standards for research involving human participants. As there is no publicly accessible source of population-level data that would allow random selection of women aged 18–65, recruitment was conducted through non-random convenience sampling. Data collection was carried out by distributing a link to an online self-report questionnaire created and administered via Qualtrics, by e-mail and social media such as WhatsApp and Facebook, between February and March 2024. Because the questionnaire was distributed online through open digital channels, it was not possible to calculate a response rate, as the total number of individuals who were exposed to the survey link could not be determined. The introduction to the questionnaire included information on the study; it also clarified that the questionnaire had been approved by an ethics committee and that it is intended for research purposes only. Another statement was that the questionnaire is anonymous and participation is voluntary. Accordingly, participants were asked to sign an informed consent form, and then they were automatically transferred to the questionnaire.

Sample

The sample comprised 360 women from a single country who were in the work age range, that is, 18–65. A power analysis assuming a small to medium effect size (f² = 0.05), α = 0.05, and power = 0.80, estimated that a sample of approximately 180–200 participants would be adequate for detecting effects of this magnitude. The final sample of 360 women therefore exceeded this requirement, providing robust statistical power. The mean age of the women was 38.3 (SD = 10.53) and the mean for their years of schooling was 16.59 (SD = 2.86). Most of the women reported being married or in a committed relationship (85.6%), and having a monthly family income similar to or higher than the national average (78.3%).

Research tools

The background variables examined included age, marital status, schooling, income, and employment status.

Independent variables

Self-efficacy was assessed by the New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGES; Chen et al., 2001). This questionnaire comprises eight statements on a Likert scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The final score was calculated by summing the answers, such that the higher the score the higher the self-efficacy. In the current study the reliability as internal consistency was Cronbach’s alpha of 0.914. This scale demonstrated strong construct validity in previous studies using diverse adult populations (Chen et al., 2001).

Intrinsic motivation to exercise was measured by the intrinsic motivation subscale from the Revised Sport Motivation Scale (SMS-II; Pelletier et al., 2013), a 24-item questionnaire measuring six types of motivation: intrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation, and a motivation. In the current study, only the intrinsic motivation subscale was used, as it directly reflects self-endorsed reasons for engaging in physical activity (e.g. enjoyment, interest, and personal satisfaction). This subscale consists of three statements. Participants rated the extent to which each item described their motivation to engage in exercise, using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 7 (very true). The final score was calculated as the average of all replies, such that the higher the score the stronger the intrinsic motivation to exercise. In the current study high reliability as internal consistency was found, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.914. Although originally developed in the context of sports, the SMS-II has been validated for use in general exercise settings (Pelletier et al., 2013) and applied in non-athletic populations (Blecharz et al., 2015). In this study, participants were instructed to refer to their typical, non-competitive exercise habits.

Self-compassion was assessed by the Short Form of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS-SF; Raes et al., 2011), a 12-item version based on the original scale developed by Neff (2003). The questionnaire consists of six subscales: self-kindness, self-judgment, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and over-identification. Respondents were asked to note to what degree they feel as described in the statements, on a Likert scale from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). After reversing the scale for the relevant items, the mean of each subscale was calculated, followed by the overall mean of the four positive subscales. In the current study, reliability as internal consistency was Cronbach’s alpha of 0.871. The short form has demonstrated acceptable construct validity and high correlation with the original scale across multiple populations (Raes et al., 2011).

Engaging in exercise was measured by two questions from the WHO questionnaire that addresses various health issues (WHO, 2024b). The questions are: “Do you do any vigorous intensity sports, fitness or recreational (leisure) activities that cause large increases in breathing or heart rate (such as running or football) for at least 10 minutes continuously?” and “Do you do any moderate intensity sports, fitness or recreational (leisure) activities that cause a small increase in breathing or heart rate (such as brisk walking, cycling, swimming, volleyball) for at least 10 minutes continuously?.” The measure was calculated by stratifying the questions, such that those who reported any exercise that is not routine (at medium or high intensity) were classified as engaging in exercise (coded as 0) and the rest as not engaging in exercise (coded as 1).

Dependent variable

Psychological well-being was assessed by the Flourishing Scale (Diener et al., 2010), which includes eight items. Responses were given on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The final score was calculated as a total, such that the higher it was the higher the psychological well-being. In the current study, reliability as internal consistency was Cronbach’s alpha of 0.839. This scale has shown good construct validity and has been widely used to assess psychological well-being in both clinical and non-clinical samples (Diener et al., 2010). For the distribution of the research variables and the correlations between the variables see Table 1.

Table 1.

Means, standard deviations, and Pearson correlations between the research variables (n = 360).

Research variables	1	2	3	4	Mean (SD)	Number of respondents (%)
1. Self-efficacy					34.00 (5.89)
2. Intrinsic motivation to exercise	0.174^***				2.83 (1.74)
3. Self-compassion	0.400^***	0.192^***			3.33 (0.63)
4. Engaging in exercise	0.039	−0.293^***	−0.026			Engage: 179 (49.7%)
4. Engaging in exercise	0.039	−0.293^***	−0.026			Do not engage: 181 (50.3%)
5. Psychological well-being	0.586^***	0.242^***	0.531^***	0.020	46.09 (6.37)

***

p < 0.001.

Statistical analysis

A correlation matrix was first examined to assess basic associations between variables and to explore the potential for multicollinearity. The current study examined a moderated mediation model, where self-efficacy was examined as the independent variable, psychological well-being as the dependent variable, and intrinsic motivation to exercise as the variable mediating the association between them. Then, self-compassion was examined as moderating the association between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise and engaging in exercise was examined as moderating the association between intrinsic motivation to exercise and psychological well-being.

Prior to conducting the main analyses, the normality of all research variables was assessed by examining skewness and kurtosis. None of the skewness values exceeded an absolute value of three and none of the kurtosis values exceeded an absolute value of seven, indicating acceptable normality (Kline, 2011). As recommended by Hayes (2022), we used a bootstrap estimation method that does not assume normality of the sampling distribution. Therefore, no additional assumption testing was required prior to conducting the moderated mediation analysis. The model was examined using the PROCESS macro for SPSS v2, model 21 (Hayes, 2022). To examine whether the effects are significant, 10,000 bootstrap samples were utilized, with a 95% confidence interval.

Indirect effects were considered significant if the 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval did not include zero, consistent with Hayes’ (2022) recommendations, which do not require a significant total effect or a reduction in the direct effect. For the variable of “self-compassion,” moderation was examined on three levels: at one standard deviation above the mean, at the mean, and at one standard deviation below the mean. For the variable of “engaging in exercise” no tests of interaction were performed, as the moderation effect was not found to be significant.

Findings

The current research findings show that, as hypothesized (H₁1), a positive association was found between women’s self-efficacy and their psychological well-being (b = 0.603, 95% CI = (0.511, 0.695)). In addition, as hypothesized (H₁2), intrinsic motivation to exercise mediated the association between women’s self-efficacy and their psychological well-being. Thus, a positive association was found between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise (b = 0.054, 95% CI = (0.002, 0.020)), which was in turn found to be positively correlated with psychological well-being (b = 0.549, 95% CI = (0.215, 0.883)). The mediation effect was determined to be significant, as the 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval for the indirect effect did not include zero.

The hypothesis concerning the moderating role of self-compassion in the association between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise, whereby this association would be found stronger in the presence of high levels of self-compassion (H₁3), was partially confirmed (ΔR² = 0.029, F_{(1, 356)} = 11.38, p = 0.001), as the association was significant only at medium and high levels of self-compassion. The association between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise was stronger at high levels of self-compassion (one standard deviation above the mean; b = 0.101, p = 0.000) than at medium levels of self-compassion (b = 0.054, p = 0.001). Nonetheless, at low levels of self-compassion (one standard deviation below the mean, p = 0.675), no significant association was found between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise.

Of the total sample, 179 participants (49.7%) reported engaging in moderate or vigorous exercise, while 181 (50.3%) reported no engagement. The last hypothesis (H₁4), regarding the moderating role of engaging in exercise in the association between intrinsic motivation to exercise and psychological well-being, was completely refuted. Engaging in exercise was not found to moderate this association at all (p = 0.456). For a figure depicting the moderated mediation model explaining the association between self-efficacy and psychological well-being, see Figure 1. For regression coefficients and standard errors in the moderated mediation model, see Table 2. For conditional effects of self-efficacy on intrinsic motivation to exercise at different levels of self-compassion, see Table 3 and Figure 2.

Table 2.

Regression coefficients and standard errors in the moderated mediation model (n = 360).

Predictor variables	Outcome variables
Predictor variables	B	SE	t	95% CI	R ²
Intrinsic motivation to exercise (M1)
Self-efficacy	0.054	0.017	3.12^**	0.020, 0.088	0.077
Self-compassion	0.419	0.152	2.74^**	0.006, 0.119
Self-efficacy × self-compassion	0.074	0.022	3.37^***	0.001, 0.030
Psychological well-being (Y)
Self-efficacy	0.603	0.046	12.95^***	0.511, 0.695	0.367
Intrinsic motivation to exercise	0.549	0.170	3.23^**	0.215, 0.883
Engaging in exercise	0.546	0.565	0.96	−0.566, 1.659
Engaging in exercise × intrinsic motivation to exercise	−0.248	0.333	−0.74	−0.903, 0.406

SE: standard error.

***

p < 0.001. ^**p < 0.01.

Table 3.

Conditional effects of self-efficacy on intrinsic motivation to exercise at various levels of self-compassion (n = 360).

Self-compassion (SD level)	B	SE	T	LLCI, ULCI
Self-compassion at SD −1	0.008	0.018	0.41	−0.028, 0.043
Self-compassion at SD 0	0.054	0.017	3.12^**	0.020, 0.088
Self-compassion at SD 1	0.101	0.026	3.93^***	0.051, 0.152

SE: standard error; LLCI: lower-limit confidence interval; ULCI: upper-limit confidence interval.

***

p < 0.001. ^**p < 0.01.

Discussion

The current study focused on the dynamics between mental-cognitive elements (self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation to exercise, and self-compassion) and a behavioral element (engaging in exercise) to explain women’s psychological well-being. Its findings reveal that, in the context of exercise, the dynamics between the mental-cognitive dimensions explains women’s well-being, but without the behavioral element. The association found in this study between women’s self-efficacy and their well-being augments the results of previous studies, showing that one’s belief in her ability to achieve her goals, reflecting positive self-concept, promotes her well-being (Karademas, 2007; Wang et al., 2022). Moreover, women’s physical health conditions and their ability to engage in physical activity may also be associated with overall psychological well-being.

Intrinsic motivation as a mediating mechanism

In this study intrinsic motivation to exercise, which reflects the desire to engage in exercise based on authentic and autonomous interest, pleasure, and value (Deci and Ryan, 2000), was found to mediate the positive association between women’s self-efficacy and their well-being. Thus, it appears that a woman’s sense of self-efficacy regarding her ability to achieve the goals she sets herself explains her intrinsic motivation to exercise, which in turn explains her positive mental state. This mediating role of intrinsic motivation to exercise is consistent with previous findings, where intrinsic motivation in different contexts was found to mediate the association between self-efficacy and different aspects of well-being (Çetin and Aşkun, 2018; Thomas et al., 2009). Nonetheless, to the best of our knowledge, the current study is the first to examine these associations in the context of exercise. The mediating role of intrinsic motivation to exercise in the association between self-efficacy and well-being can be ascribed to the fact that self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation are internal resources known to serve the individual as intrinsic stimuli for reaching a goal. These internal resources constitute a robust psychological foundation fostering good coping with difficulties, blocking negative effects of stress and life challenges, and contributing to perseverance and striving for goals and to well-being (Schmitt et al., 2006).

The moderating role of self-compassion

The findings of the current study also reveal the role of self-compassion in the context of motivation to exercise. Self-compassion is increasingly recognized in sport psychology as a key factor in supporting self-regulation, enhancing self-awareness, and helping individuals manage anxiety and other negative feelings (Ortiz et al., 2023). The current findings further reveal the critical role of self-compassion in the association between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise and thus add a valuable layer to that known. While at high levels of self-compassion, the association between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise is significant and strong, the lower the self-compassion the weaker this association, so much so that at low levels of self-compassion no association was found between women’s self-efficacy and their intrinsic motivation to exercise. Thus, women’s tendency to severely judge and criticize themselves reduces the beneficial effect of self-efficacy on the intrinsic authentic desire to engage in exercise. Moreover, the current research findings show that if women do not enjoy the beneficial and regulating effect of self-compassion, even if characterized by high levels of self-efficacy, the positive association between their self-efficacy and their intrinsic motivation to exercise may be weakened or even eliminated.

This pattern suggests that self-compassion may reduce fear of failure and support willingness to engage with challenges (Breines and Chen, 2012), while also buffering against shame, guilt, and other negative self-evaluative emotions (Neff, 2011). In the context of exercise, where women often face emotional and practical barriers (Trübswasser et al., 2021), self-compassion may therefore lower the emotional cost associated with pursuing exercise-related goals, namely the tension, apprehension, or self-critical emotions that often accompany perceived effort or the possibility of not succeeding (Neff, 2011). When such self-kindness is present, beliefs about capability are more likely to translate into genuine intrinsic motivation rather than be inhibited by self-doubt or anticipated failure.

Engaging in exercise: A non-significant role

While intrinsic motivation is often linked to sustained behavioral engagement, internal motivational states may hold psychological meaning even when circumstances limit one’s ability to act on them. This perspective offers a useful context for interpreting the current finding regarding exercise engagement. Unlike the mental-cognitive components, the behavioral element examined in this research model, that is, actual engaging in exercise, was not found to moderate the association between intrinsic motivation to exercise and well-being. Thus, women characterized by high intrinsic motivation to exercise enjoyed higher well-being irrespective of whether they engaged in exercise or not. This leads to the conclusion that authentic autonomous intrinsic motivation to exercise, stemming from pleasure and challenge with no sense of external coercion or compulsion, is sufficient to explain well-being. Thus, in the context of exercise, as in previous studies conducted in other contexts, mental-cognitive elements were associated with higher well-being among women, irrespective of actual engaging in exercise (e.g. Karademas, 2007; Morales-Rodríguez et al., 2020; Temane and Wissing, 2006). One possible interpretation is that psychological well-being may relate not only to enacted behavior but also to the internal alignment between personal values and intrinsic motivation, which may position the motivational experience as a meaningful psychological resource even when actual exercise does not occur.

Research limitations and suggestions for future studies

Alongside its innovative findings, the limitations of the current study are also worthy of attention. First, the research sampling was non-random, which might have biased the findings and might restrict their generalizability. In addition, since the research is correlational, causality cannot be determined. Moreover, the research model should be examined in different contexts, such as in various countries, other ages, and among men as well. Furthermore, the current study focuses on a limited number of research variables, so it is suggested that future studies examine additional variables related to exercise, such as ascribing importance to exercise, perseverance, former experience with exercise, exposure to contents encouraging an occupation with health, and so on. Studying these issues might enhance existing knowledge regarding women’s well-being in the context of exercise. In line with the Basic Psychological Needs Theory, the present study focused on the competence-related aspect; future research would benefit from examining autonomy and relatedness needs as well, to assess whether the model holds when all three basic psychological needs are considered simultaneously. Additionally, although participants were instructed to refer to their general exercise behavior when responding to the motivation items, the use of a sport-oriented scale (SMS-II) may nonetheless limit the specificity of the findings regarding exercise-related motivation.

The low and non-significant correlation between engaging in exercise and well-being may have limited the ability to detect moderation effects within the model. This may be partially attributed to the measurement method, which relied on a single-item, self-report categorization of exercise engagement. Nevertheless, engaging in exercise was retained in the model due to its theoretical relevance and its role in representing the behavioral component of the study’s conceptual framework.

Conclusions

The current study highlights the significant contribution of mental-cognitive factors, particularly self-efficacy and self-compassion, to women’s psychological well-being. The results also indicate that the positive association between self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to exercise was evident only among women with higher levels of self-compassion. Furthermore, the findings suggest that intrinsic motivation to exercise mediates the positive effect of self-efficacy on well-being, whereas no moderation effect was found for actual engagement in exercise. Together, these results underscore the importance of strengthening self-related beliefs and inner motivation as a basis for mental health promotion (see also Garstang et al., 2026; Raque-Bogdan et al., 2019).

In light of the pattern observed for self-compassion, approaches that help reduce harsh self-criticism may support the translation of women’s sense of capability into intrinsic motivation, particularly in the presence of emotional or practical barriers. Accordingly, caregiving professionals should be encouraged to foster self-efficacy and self-compassion in their clients through evidence-based therapeutic approaches. Such approaches may include techniques that enhance awareness, self-acceptance, and psychological flexibility, thereby helping ensure that women’s existing sense of capability is more likely to manifest as genuine internal motivation rather than be inhibited by self-doubt or anticipated failure.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Yael Shtern

Ethical considerations

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee for Non-Clinical Research in Humans at Ariel University, Approval No. AU-SOC-MK-202402008. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the journal’s ethical guidelines and the authors confirm that the ethical policies of the journal have been adhered to.

Consent to participate

Participants were informed about the voluntary nature of participation, the anonymity of their responses, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence.

Consent for publication

Informed consent for publication was obtained from all participants in the study. The written consent is held by the authors and is not included in the manuscript for confidentiality reasons. Non-essential identifying details have been omitted to maintain participant anonymity.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, Y.S. The data are not publicly available due to the nature of this research; participants of this study did not agree for their data to be shared publicly.*

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