Gamifying English Language Learning through Interactive Storytelling and MALL Technologies

Abstract

In today’s society, marked by the spread of Covid-19 that forced the shift from a traditional face-to-face to a fully online setting, digital tools are becoming more and more essential to engage 21^st Century students in their classroom activities. In the context of ELT (English Language Teaching), Digital Game-Based Language Learning (DGBLL) has increasingly been shown to foster language development since its interactivity allows for the creation of a constructivist learning environment in which students do not experience feelings of stress and anxiety. This article aims to present the design, development, and testing of an original class-interactive storytelling game addressing EFL (English as a Foreign Language) Italian Secondary School students. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected and submitted to statistical and Computer-assisted content analyses to triangulate and enhance findings. The results showed that DGBLL had positive effects on students’ language development and the enhancement of 21^st Century Skills, including critical thinking, engagement, collaboration, and the reduction of the fear of failure.

Keywords

Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL)Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL)Digital Storytelling (DST)English as a Foreign Language (EFL)English Language Teaching (ELT)Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL)

I Introduction

It is common knowledge that in these difficult times caused by the Covid-19 outbreak in late December 2019, teachers, practitioners, and researchers in almost every field of study have been forced to change their teaching habits by switching to and (or) alternating online and hybrid instructional methods. As a consequence, teachers and educators had to face the challenge of adapting the curriculum to the online environment while trying to motivate students to do tasks and activities usually carried out at school or university using videos, instructional websites, and platforms such as Microsoft Teams and Google Classroom. However, despite some investigations reporting positive results about the implementation of digital tools in teaching and learning during the Covid-19 pandemic (Niemi & Kousa, 2020; Nuzhath, 2020), teachers and educators showed not to be accustomed to these kinds of innovative devices and felt unprepared both to plan and design an effective curriculum and meaningfully engage students towards their learning (Teräs et al., 2020). However, even before the so-called ‘Emergency Remote Teaching’ (ERT) (Hodges et al., 2020), The Council of the European Union (2018) had already released (and adopted) ‘The Recommendation on Key Competencies for Lifelong Learning’, a document recognizing a set of essential skills to live and work in today’s world, among which seem to be prominent the so-called Literacy, Multilingual, and Digital Skills. Nonetheless, using technology sporadically and aimlessly in the educational environment may result in a useless learning experience. Accordingly, meaningful technology integration into the curriculum seems to be crucial to pave the way to the construction of an instructional setting able to create favorable conditions to help students develop high-order cognitive skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, cooperation, and collaboration to let them turn from passive users into flexible and active learners. In particular, in the context of ELT (English Language Teaching), the rising of CALL (Computer-assisted Language Learning) has represented a valuable opportunity for both teachers and students to explore new ways of approaching foreign language development. The CALL approach starts from the assumption that today’s learners are heavy users of new media technologies and so motivating them by using tools they are familiar with is a primary key to successful language learning. As subsets of CALL, Digital Game-Based Language Learning (DGBLL) and Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL) represent up-to-date approaches to encourage and stimulate students both in and outside the classroom due to some unique features, to name a few: their interactivity and similarity to entertaining games, the ability to let students both explore meanings and situations by setting pleasant challenges (thus, simplifying the educational material) and overcome feelings of stress and anxiety often arising in the traditional face-to-face learning environment (Al-Bulushi & AI-Issa, 2017). In particular, DGBLL and MALL give students the opportunity to acquire different skills through situated learning since the educational content is presented in an amusing way, and they can improve their knowledge by exploring language-in-context through their smartphones, generally used only for entertaining purposes (Klopfer, Osterweil & Salen, 2009). Thus, learners are also given a chance to understand how to meaningfully integrate technology for their personal and professional life development. The exploration of language-in-context is also enriched by storytelling. As a matter of fact, since ancient times, it has been considered the primary element for the transmission of knowledge from generation to generation. In DGBLL, it plays a fundamental role in allowing students to learn in a pleasant way, for instance, by letting them identify themselves with the characters and (or) helping them reach their goals. Accordingly, narratives are considered to be a key factor in educational game design which – whether well designed and appropriately integrated with instructional content – contribute to positive learning outcomes by enhancing comprehension and increasing engagement and motivation during the whole learning process (Naul & Liu, 2019).

II Rationale for the study

1 Problem statement

Investigations conducted in the ELT environment have shown that DGBLL has fostered cooperative, problem-solving, digital, and language skills, especially regarding vocabulary acquisition (Iaremenko, 2017; Liu & Chu, 2010). Indeed, combining storytelling and gamification elements into MALL tools has proved to help enhance students’ commitment, motivation, and second language (L2) skills (Huang & Soman, 2013). However, there is room for improvement. First, there is hardly any evidence of studies involving the use of games created ad hoc for ELT purposes. The most recent ones are based on already existing and known platforms such as Kahoot! (Wichadee & Pattanapichet, 2018) and Duolingo (Ajisoko, 2020). Moreover, other investigations exploring the use of MALL in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom have pointed out the difficulty in establishing which game feature(s) could be considered the crucial element(s) for the positive results regarding language development and enhanced engagement (Dehghanzadeh et al., 2019).

Concerning the use of MALL in the classroom, several advantages, as well as disadvantages, exist. Among the disadvantages, apart from the aforementioned difficulties, the technical and personal issues that may prevent the use of this methodology in the classroom should be taken into account: for instance, the fact that not all students possess a smartphone, the costs, and actual employability of the Internet connection at school, plus the design of the exercises to respond to any educational needs. At the same time, the embedding of MALL in the L2 (second/foreign language) classroom can be taken as a positive move since students use new technologies and smartphones daily and, in this way, they would be doubtlessly open to exploring language topics through tools they are accustomed to and perceive as entertaining. Finally, communication through smartphones is easy and immediate, letting students take control over their learning while sharing information with their peers, thus enhancing autonomous and collaboration skills.

2 Objectives of the study

Against this backdrop, this article aims to present the results of a quasi-experiment conducted on 95 EFL Italian Secondary school students in Year 7 by adopting the MALL approach. As previously stated, to the best of our knowledge, there is hardly any evidence of studies on the integration of digital games in the L2 classroom that take into account game design, content, and language learning. As a result, this article will address the following research questions:

Research question 1: Can digital games have an impact on students’ performance in the L2 classroom?

Research question 2: What are EFL students’ perceptions about the integration of digital games in the L2 classroom?

Thus, the class-interactive role-playing game presented in this article aims to contribute to enriching the literature regarding the implementation of digital games in the L2 classroom by focusing on the importance of mixing appropriate multimedia content with game design and features to allow students to comprehend and assimilate topics while undergoing a comfortable and entertaining language learning experience.

In particular, this research starts from the description of a game developed by using a role-playing engine called Evo-RPGE. The game narration has been created ex novo, and syntactically and grammatically constructed according to CEFR (The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages) levels for Secondary School students (A1–A2), aiming at helping them learn and fix the grammatical structures provided by their syllabus. Nonetheless, the game allows students to explore the English language outside their syllabus since it also comprises the so-called Multi-Word Expressions: in particular, Idioms (IDs), Light-Verb Constructions (LVCs), and Phrasal Verbs (PVs) whose mastery is fundamental for students’ language proficiency even though they are generally perceived as hard to learn and retain (Ellis, Simpson-Vlach & Maynard, 2008).

The study involves the Mixed-Method (MM) approach with experimental and control groups, and both quantitative (QUAN) and qualitative (QUAL) data were collected to triangulate and enhance findings. The hypothesis behind the investigation is that the use of MALL in the L2 classroom might be beneficial not only for language improvement but also for enhancing the so-called 21^st Century Skills (Battelle for Kids, 2019), among which collaborative and digital skills, together with active and responsible learning are pointed out.

III Digital Game-Based Learning in the ELT environment

1 Theoretical framework

Digital Game-Based Learning represents an up-to-date approach that turns an old-school¹ lecture into a more interactive and entertaining activity. Nevertheless, the use of games for learning purposes is definitely not new since – even in ancient times – the Greek philosopher Plato proposed a pedagogical approach that promoted ‘learning through play’ (παιδιά), meaning that learning should be playful and enjoyable to engage learners but, at the same time, ‘serious’, namely used for specific purposes.

Today, the advancements in new media technologies have brought new dimensions to teaching and learning, and this has led Game-Based Learning (GBL) to be enriched by the use of digital tools. However, when DGBL (Digital Game-Based Learning) is employed in a foreign instructional environment, it turns into DGBLL that comprises creating digital games purposefully designed for L2 teaching and learning.

Researchers and practitioners who wish to create educational digital games should develop them by considering Gee’s principles (2005) for DGBL. They claim that educational digital games should follow didactic categories and mix game design and game content to provide students with a comfortable and productive learning experience. Accordingly, games should: have a compelling identity to ensure a high level of engagement, provide interaction, take into account learners’ interests while offering ‘situated meanings’, let them experience a sense of control while being pleasantly challenging, pose a well-organized degree of difficulties, let learners think about their choice and be able to correct them (Gee, 2005). These principles of game design are strictly connected to game content. Indeed, one of the peculiarities and attractiveness of games is represented by the adventure, namely the storytelling which is part of them. When storytelling is integrated into a game environment it serves a double role: on the one hand, it lets players immerse themselves in the game; on the other hand, it gives meaning to the whole game.

The concept of transmedia storytelling is highly associated with the theory of Multimedia Learning developed by Mayer (2002) who states that ‘[. . .] multimedia instructional messages that are designed in light of how the human mind works are more likely to lead to meaningful learning than those that are not so designed’ (Mayer, 2014, p. 43). Therefore, mixing appropriate text with selected images, videos, music, and sound effects enhances students’ cognitive capacity for learning: they receive the information, process it in a double way (i.e. they mentally perceive the material and then make sense of it), assimilate it, and can retrieve it when needed.

Finally, constructivist approaches to teaching and learning suggest that learning by doing represents the best way for students to comprehend, assimilate, and retrieve concepts (Bruner, 1986; Vygotsky, 2016). By situating learning in a meaningful game environment, learners not only better understand the material but also develop high-order cognitive skills (e.g. critical thinking) and re-evaluate their understanding of it.

2 Literature review

Digital Game-Based Language Learning represents a subset of the CALL approach whose primary aim is the increasing use of technology in the curriculum to foster students’ learning. Investigations on GBL conducted in the L2 environment primarily regarded the so-called COTS (Commercial-Off-The-Shelf) games such as The Sims that – despite being created only for entertainment purposes – has shown to be beneficial when added as additional material in the English classroom for the acquisition of specific vocabulary (Ranalli, 2008). Vocabulary improvement was the core theme of the research carried out by Yip and Kwan (2006), which highlighted that the students treated with digital games were more likely to retain the English vocabulary compared with the ones attending traditional face-to-face lessons.

On the contrary, studies conducted on the so-called SIEs (Synthetic Immersive Environments) games (namely, games directly aiming at teaching and learning purposes) have shown that they help enhance, at the same time, language development, motivation, and engagement. For instance, Liu and Chu (2010) tested 64 EFL college students with SIEs digital games: the results of the posttest of the experimental groups reported better outcomes in terms of academic development and increased motivation compared to the ones of the control groups.

In addition, the combination of DGBLL and the MALL approach has proved to produce better results than the use of digital games alone. An example is represented by those studies reporting positive outcomes concerning vocabulary acquisition (Peirce & Wade, 2012), listening skills (Roy & Schlemminger, 2014), writing skills (Berns et al., 2013), and motivation (Kocaman & Kızılkaya-Cumaoğlu, 2014). In particular, as for vocabulary development, some studies (Ducate & Lomicka, 2009; Saran & Seferoğlu, 2010) have underlined how mobile phones were valuable both for the development of specific quizzes and to help students improve pronunciation of terms and lexical acquisition. Furthermore, MALL helps improve reading skills – especially in the ELT environment – through collaborative reading activities that, in some cases, have encouraged the replacement of paper materials (Chen & Li, 2010; Ozcelik & Acarturk, 2011). Listening skills can be enhanced through mobile interactive audiobooks which often provide not only correct pronunciations but also explanations about and translations of the topic narrated (Çakır, 2012). To that end, Wichadee and Pattanapichet (2018) conducted a study involving 2,645 university students divided into experimental and control groups and demonstrated that the students treated with digital games exhibited increased motivation and better academic performance in comparison to the ones treated with traditional instruction. Another research carried out by Azar and Tan (2020) during the Covid-19 pandemic involving MALL, gamification, and virtual reality showed that ELT is boosted when innovative technologies are embedded in the classroom. Finally, concerning the reduction of feelings of stress and anxiety and the arising of positive competition, the investigation by Horowitz (2019) – which points out an increased interaction between students and the lowering of inhibitions – is helpful in revealing these significant aspects of the embedding of games in the classroom.

IV The Story of WordLand: A class-interactive storytelling game for EFL students in Year 7

1 Game engine

Light-Verb Quest or The Story of WordLand (TSWL) has been created by using the Evo-RPGE² engine developed by E-voluzione s.r.l. The engine allows for the development of class-interactive games through the coding language proper of the software. The games are usually displayed on the Interactive Whiteboard (IWB), and the interaction between the students, the IWB, and the game itself is provided through the use of their smartphones connected to a private Wi-Fi to let them focus on the content and avoid them surfing the net or using social networks. Once all the students have connected to the Wi-Fi, an interface appears on their smartphones showing the game title, the author of the game, and the button score with a green-colored string signaling the highest score level (=100) that may change during the game-adventure.

Moreover, while the story narration is displayed only on the IWB, the questions appear both on the IWB and the students’ smartphones. Finally, students may play the game as single players or in groups according to the teacher’s choice.

2 Game narration

TSWL tells the story of the Kingdom of WordLand, a magical place where all the people live happy and free. The King, the Queen, and the prince, who spend their time in a bucolic castle surrounded by green fields, centuries-old trees, transparent waterfalls, and multicolored flowers, protect the most important treasure, that is, a magical chest containing all the words of the World.

When a giant, red dragon living in a scary castle on the highest mountain of WordLand, jealous of the peaceful atmosphere of the Kingdom, threatens it by stealing the treasure, leaving the people without speech, the prince needs to make all the efforts to restore the situation. In fact, he is the only one left with the ability to speak due to his hidden powers, but he needs a WordMaster³ coming from another world to help him collect the words left by the dragon along the way. However, the journey is long and full of traps drawn up by the dragon and its evil friends that the prince and the WordMaster need to overcome to finally find the treasure and give people their words back by turning WordLand into a magical and peaceful Kingdom again.

3 Game design and features

TSWL has been primarily constructed according to the students’ syllabus to let them learn and retain those aspects of the English language corresponding to the CEFR level they are expected to reach at the end of their school year (A1–A2). Table 1 shows the grammatical features of the game.

Table 1.

Grammatical features of The Story of WordLand (TSWL).

Tenses	Positive, negative, interrogative forms: Present Simple, Present Continuous, Future (will, going to), Past Simple of regular and irregular verbs, Present Perfect
Wh-questions	what, when, where, which, who, whose, why, how
Comparatives and superlatives	Adjectives and adverbs
Modals	Positive, negative, interrogative forms: have to, must, can
Stative verbs of feelings and emotions	like, love, hate, prefer + -ing form
Conditionals	if clauses
Multi-word expressions	Idioms, phrasal verbs, light-verb constructions
Vocabulary	Weather, means of transport, body parts, holidays
Geographical and historical references to the UK	Embedded narratives, e.g. The Tudor Times

The game also takes into account Verbal Multi-Word Expressions (VMWEs), especially LVCs, and English history and culture, thus offering students an opportunity for an interdisciplinary exploration of the English language. An example is represented by the embedded narrative of Henry VIII’s story that students usually study in Year 7. Accordingly, while revising a part of the English history, students practice the language. Figure 1 shows one of the questions learners need to answer by choosing the correct verb tense, in this case, a narrative tense like Past Simple.

In this game, students are immediately involved in the narration through an external narrator that introduces the situation and tells the background story by presenting the characters, thus directly letting participants feel engaged in the game. The protagonist (i.e. the prince), the antagonists of the story (e.g. an evil spider, a fire-breathing dragon), and the good characters (e.g. a farmer, a pastry chef chicken, a tiny frog) – that help the prince and the students overcome the obstacles – address learners with questions and statements to let them be active participants in the adventure.

As already stated, the story narration has been created ex novo, and the author⁴ has also enriched the game with copyright-free images, music, and sound effects to make the adventure more realistic and entertaining. Often, images and sounds have been created or modified by using image- and audio-editing software. Each character has its (synthesized) voice so that students can explicitly identify them, their role, and what they state or ask.

The story follows a chronological narration of events, and students need to overcome a series of obstacles to proceed in the game. In this way, they can better follow the story narration and, as they progress in the game, the exercises and questions increase their level of difficulty. The questions are usually in the form of multiple-choice questions that allow students to take their time to reflect upon the answers. They generally appear during the story narration to let learners keep their attention and, at the same time, challenge them. The intriguing challenges that the game provides have the aim to avoid feelings of stress and anxiety that, on the contrary, may arise during face-to-face lectures. Moreover, apart from questions related to the English language, students are challenged with riddles and jokes that create a pleasant atmosphere like the one provided by COTS games.

When answering questions through their smartphones, students immediately learn whether their choice is correct or incorrect. Indeed, the game has been constructed so that when the answer is correct, the system highlights it in green; when it is wrong, it is highlighted in red. Figure 2 shows an example of a correct and incorrect question in the game.

Finally, when the answer is incorrect, the character itself or the external narrator provides, on the one hand, an explanation about its incorrectness, and on the other hand, the correct answer plus an additional example surrounded by textual and visual elements. In this way, students can visualize, understand, and better retain the information provided through the mixing of different communication codes.

V Methodology and procedures

1 Research design

The potential impact of DGBLL on EFL Italian Secondary school students was tested by adopting a Mixed Methods approach as a part of a quasi-experimental design. The choice of the MM approach lies in the opportunity given to the researcher to integrate both qualitative and quantitative methods when neither the former nor the latter can provide adequate findings (Rossman & Wilson, 1985). As a result, this pragmatist approach enriches the research by integrating the two methods into a single study to corroborate findings.

The investigation took place during the school year 2019/20 in a Secondary School in Naples (Italy) and addressed a total amount of 95 students in Year 7 divided into five experimental groups and one control group. For this study, the author adopted a non-probability sample in the form of a purposive sample that is generally used ‘for the identification and selection of information-rich cases for the most effective use of limited resources’ (Palinkas et al., 2015, p. 1). The groups of students involved in the quasi-experimental design were chosen through a semi-randomization procedure (Mackey & Gass, 2016) due to time constraints and the fact that this research was carried out during working hours in the English classroom. Therefore, the author arbitrarily assigned classes to experimental and control groups. To that end, the researcher never met students and teachers before the experiment to avoid exerting any possible influence on them. Even though foreign language research usually does not involve any potential controversy, ethical issues were taken into account, and students’ parents were asked to sign an Ethical Consent Letter at the beginning of the school year to let learners join the project.

2 Data collection

QUAN and QUAL data were collected through two questionnaires⁵ (pretest and posttest, respectively administered at the beginning and end of the experiment) and a satisfactory survey. The pretest and posttest questionnaires were administered to both the experimental and control groups; the satisfactory survey, only to the experimental groups to evaluate whether students reported positive perceptions regarding their motivation and engagement toward the English language through games.

The author generated the content of the pretest and posttest questionnaires upon the grammatical topics chosen for the game (see Table 1), and the questions were adapted to the type of exercises of the students’ book Go Live! (Level 2) (Maxwell & Sharman, 2016). The questionnaires consisted of seven exercises containing different items per exercise. Each exercise was assigned a score based on the ones provided by Go Live! and depending on their increasing level of difficulty. The maximum score per questionnaire was 50 points. On the contrary, the researcher developed the satisfactory survey so that it comprised eleven questions divided into nine 4-point Likert scale⁶ closed questions and two open-ended questions.

3 Credibility, validity, and reliability of the study

To enhance the credibility and validity of the findings, several procedures were carried out:

Methodological triangulation through the collection and analysis of QUAN and QUAL data;

The involvement of experimental and control groups;

Statistical analyses of data (t-tests and the Kruskal-Wallis test);

Equivalence of pretest and posttest to avoid any bias: both tests show the same number of questions with the same content since the choice of an easier pretest and a difficult posttest (or vice versa) might have threatened the credibility of the findings.

4 Game procedure and experiment

The procedure of the investigation was quite the same for both the experimental and control groups. The main distinction between them lies in the fact that the experimental groups were treated with the game and administered a satisfactory survey, whereas the control group attended a traditional face-to-face lesson. Students played the game only once principally because of time constraints. In fact – as already mentioned – the research was carried out during the English class and, for this reason, only a few hours could be dedicated to the experiment.

The treatment of the experimental groups was carried out as follows:

Students were first administered the pretest questionnaire;

Since Evo-RPGE is not an open-source software and only runs on Apple systems, the author had to bring a personal laptop and connect it to the IWB in each classroom. Then, students were asked to turn their smartphones⁷ on and connect them to the private Wi-Fi through a QR code.

As not all the students had a smartphone, they were allowed to work in groups of a maximum of three people each.

After the preparatory procedures, students started to play the game by following the narration on the IWB and answering the questions on their smartphones.

Finally, they were administered both the posttest questionnaire, and then the satisfactory survey.

5 Data analysis

After collecting both QUAN and QUAL data, QUAN was submitted to several statistical analyses to evaluate the statistical significance of the findings; part of QUAL data was transformed into QUAN data, whereas the open-ended questions were investigated by using Computer-Assisted Qualitative Content Analysis (CAQCAS) performed through the NVivo12 package to further improve findings. NVivo12 was chosen since it allows coding specific themes relevant to the literature and, at the same time, looking for emergent themes that may deserve particular consideration.

At first, the analysis of the quantitative data of both the pretest and posttest questionnaires overall showed that there was an increase – at least, at the numerical level – in the scores of both the experimental (X) and control groups (C). As mentioned, the pretest and posttest were articulated so that a maximum of 50 points might be assigned to seven exercises.

Table 2 shows the difference (D) in the scores between the pretest and posttest results for each student in each class. The negative values indicate a negative score in the posttest compared to the scores gained in the pretest. A numerical code (i.e. 1, 2, 3, etc.) was assigned to each student for privacy reasons.

Table 2.

Difference in the scores between pretest and posttest results for each student per group.

Number of students		1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19	20	21	22
22	D – X-2019	23	22	7	1	13	10	14	17	11	12	21	18	5	7	22	34	14	8	12	14	18	23
19	D – X-2019	23	22	0	16	19	10	2	14	17	12	11	20	8	10	13	7	−2	−2	9
12	D – C-2019	0	−1	2	4	0	2	1	1	−1	1	4	4
10	D – X-2019	11	8	0	−1	2	0	5	0	−2	13
22	D – X-2019	18	10	19	9	8	29	27	22	26	18	6	6	16	1	12	5	8	10	17	17	0	10
10	D – X-2019	4	7	−3	8	8	0	4	3	5	−2

However, to verify whether the difference between the pretest and posttest scores was statistically significant, paired t-tests were conducted for both the experimental and control groups. The t-tests were run on the mean of differences between the pretest and posttest scores for each sample group. All statistical assumptions required for the reliability of t-tests are here satisfied by the data, given the fact that: the data are numeric, the observations have been collected independently, and considering that the number of the scores of the posttest is the same as that of the pretest and vice versa, it can be assumed that the assumption of normality has been satisfied. Nevertheless, in case it was not, Students’ original t-test is considered highly robust to the presence of unequal variances (Markowski & Markowski, 1990).

As can be noted in Table 3, the p-value (representing the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis if it is true) for all classes is less than the threshold value α (=0.05). Accordingly, the data observed can be considered statistically significant, and the difference between the pretest and posttest scores did not occur by chance. Table 3 shows the results of the t-tests performed for all the classes.

Table 3.

Results: t-test results on pre-test and post-test scores of both experimental and control groups.

Class	Number of students	Year	MD^a	SD^b	df ^c	t	p
X-2019	22	7	14.8	7.0	21	1.691	0.00000000
X-2019	19	7	11	7.65	18	7.659	0.00000332
C-2019	12	7	1.41	1.83	11	2.678	0.0107267
X-2019	10	7	3.6	5.35	9	2.124	0.03128410
X-2019	22	7	13.36	8.15	21	7.690	0.00000008
X-2019	10	7	3.4	3.94	9	2.722	0.01176189

Notes. ^a Mean of Difference. ^b Standard Deviation. ^c Degree of Freedom.

Furthermore, the differences between the pretest and posttest scores among the groups were calculated to evaluate their statistical significance. This evaluation can be performed by using both parametric and non-parametric tests. Since the evaluation of the homogeneity variance of data – conducted through the Levene’s test – rejected the null hypothesis (being the p-value = 0.001041754) – meaning that the assumption of homoscedasticity was not satisfied – a non-parametric test was chosen. The non-parametric test that corresponds to the parametric one-way ANOVA test is represented by the Kruskal-Wallis test which is one of the most robust tests to verify the null hypothesis (Ostertagová, Ostertag & Kováč, 2014). Therefore, the KW index⁸ was calculated which depends on the difference between the means of the ranks of the groups and the mean of the ranks in general. After the calculation of the index, the distribution of this parameter was verified on the χ²-distribution table with k–1 degrees of freedom (df) where k represents the number of compared sample groups.

The KW value was compared with the χ²-distribution (with k–1 df) to verify the null hypothesis which is rejected if the calculated KW value is greater than or equal to the critical χ² value. The χ² value represents the level of significance (like the p-value) and it was set to 0.05. The calculated value, in this case, was KW = 39.29 with 6 – 1 = 5 df and it was greater than the critical χ² value for five df up to 0.0001 (KW>20.515). Figure 3 shows the results of the Kruskal-Wallis test based on the χ²-distribution table.

As a result, the findings allow stating that the means of the ranks of the observations (which represent the differences between the pretest and posttest scores) are not equal. In other words, the difference in the observations between the groups was not due to chance but was statistically significant. Therefore, it means that TSWL had an impact on students’ performance.

After performing the statistical analyses on QUAN data to verify the statistical significance of the findings, the satisfactory survey was analysed. This analysis will be integrated into the discussion.

VI Discussion

1 Approach to the satisfactory survey

Students’ perceptions regarding the use of DGBL in the EFL classroom emerged, in particular, through the satisfactory survey. Table 4 summarizes the content and the related percentage of satisfaction concerning the nine closed questions of the satisfactory survey converted from QUAL into QUAN data, as shown in Figure 4.

Table 4.

Description of the closed questions of the satisfactory survey administered to the experimental groups.

Questions	Content	Percentage of satisfaction
Q1	Interest towards the English language	97
Q2	Overall engagement	96
Q3	Use of DGBL	93
Q4	Satisfaction about learning outcomes	96
Q5	Comprehension of the topics	92
Q6	Comparison between DGBL and face-to-face approach	94
Q7	Combination of technology and storytelling	96
Q8	Simplified learning	94
Q9	Use of DGBL with other language topics	94

Note. DGBL = Digital Game-Based Learning.

The overall satisfaction expressed by the students through the closed questions mainly concerned: (1) an increased engagement toward the English language, (2) enhanced motivation towards the subject matter due to the combination of gaming and storytelling, and (3) a pleasant atmosphere derived from a simplified and fascinating language learning experience through captivating digital tools. Moreover, these aspects were further explored through CAQCAS performed on the last two open-ended questions of the survey. The two questions were primarily related to (1) the potential embedding of DGBL in the classroom regarding other language learning topics, and (2) what students had enjoyed the most about the overall experience and the reason behind their choice. By using NVivo12, it was possible to code several themes divided into parent and child nodes, as represented in Figure 5.

2 EFL students’ perception of the pedagogical implications of the use of TSWL in Year 7

First, twenty-seven references were coded regarding students’ perceptions of TSWL as a valuable tool for language learning. Students liked the design of the game aimed at functioning as a traditional COTS game. Nevertheless, TSWL is a game that allows learners to practice either the grammatical features they are expected to learn and assimilate by the end of the school year or to experience language-in-context through the use of Multi-word expressions (MWEs), idiomatic phrasing, and translation exercises aiming at letting them acquire new and consolidate past vocabulary. As Figure 5 shows, according to the qualitative data, the learning methodology of TSWL let students experience:

a A sense of ownership over their learning

Students immediately felt to be active participants in the game since they played the role of the WordMaster, someone who has an exceptional command of the English language and the only one capable of helping the prince save his Kingdom. As typical in role-playing games, students identified themselves with the character. This identification led to a better focus on the story narration and, consequently, on the questions gradually appearing on the screen. For instance, one student stated: ‘I really liked the idea of being a WordMaster!’ (Extract from students’ statements to Q11).⁹

b Simplified learning

Students’ perception of ‘simplified learning’ is not the result of the simplified content of the exercises. As learners pointed out, it was rather determined by the mixing of different multimedia that played a fundamental role in letting them better understand even difficult questions and expressions. This result is in line with the theory of Multimedia Learning by Mayer (2002) which underlines how the combination of audio, music, text, and sounds lets students assimilate content meaningfully.

c Task-based learning

Students reported a high positive attitude towards the answering of questions. Indeed, as previously described, TSWL is a game in which the narration is interspersed with questions of increasing difficulty on specific topics that are also accompanied by random entertaining quizzes and riddles. The game design helped students perceive questioning not as an examination (as it happens during face-to-face lectures) but as an actual game feature that challenged them to reach their goals. For instance, some students stated: ‘I liked answering questions related to the weather’; ‘I love the part regarding Henry VII and answering questions about him’ (Extracts from students’ answers to Q10 and Q11). Indeed, using smartphones facilitated the process since learners were captivated by the fact that they could play the game through a device used daily.

d Use of technology

Since learners are not allowed to utilize their smartphones in the classroom, they enjoyed using them as an educational tool: ‘I liked the fact that we could use our smartphones. We always use them in our daily lives and having the opportunity to use them at school to learn something new is engaging’ (Extract from students’ responses to Q11). Some students stated that they would enjoy an increasing embedding of technology into their activities if constructed as TSWL. Indeed, even though it is a game, learners perceived that they were using their smartphones with a purpose: their language development.

e Game design, game content, storytelling

As previously mentioned, game design, content, and narrative are fundamental features for creating language learning games. Many students affirmed they liked not only the game content but, above all, how it was constructed through the mixing of audio, images, text, and sound effects (i.e. storytelling and game design). Some students reported that they liked: ‘the story, the whole game, and above all, the images’ or ‘[. . .] the graphic of the videogame, the laughter of the cat was funny, and [. . .] the fact that the characters interacted with us’ (Extracts from students’ responses to Q11).

f Cooperative learning

TSWL can be played in groups or as a single player. Since some of the students did not have a smartphone, they were allowed to work in groups. Thus, there was an improvement in cooperative learning. Indeed, during the treatment, students interacted with their group members to choose the best answer to the different questions. In this way, they had the opportunity to confront and help each other while improving their learning. Some students claimed: ‘The thing I liked the most was playing with my friends’ (Extract from students’ responses to Q10 and Q11) since working in groups is something that rarely happens in face-to-face settings. Also, helping each other reach the same goal (i.e. completing the game) reduced their feelings of stress and anxiety towards question answering.

3 Reflections on the results of QUAL and QUAN data analyses

The integration of QUAL and QUAN data allows considering that an instructional methodology like DGBL combined with the MALL approach can be valuable in fostering 21^st Century Skills.

In particular, embedding digital games aiming at L2 development can help enhance students’ comprehension and engagement towards the subject matter by working creatively with others. Indeed, the Framework for 21^st Century Learning (Battelle for Kids, 2019) points out the importance of helping students develop, among others, Creativity and Innovation, Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving, Communication and Collaboration, and Media and Technology Skills.

From the observations during the experiment and the results from the analyses of QUAN and QUAL data, it can be stated that digital games are a promising tool for the development of these skills. Let’s consider, for instance, students’ opinions regarding ‘group work’: according to their statements, learners’ enthusiasm arose not only because they were not accustomed to working in teams, but also because they helped and learned from each other. Moreover, group work led to the development of ‘problem-solving skills’: when facing the challenges provided by the game, learners had to think about the best way to overcome them, and when a student had doubts about the answer, another one was ready to help to reach together the same goal.

In addition, as the data show, learning by doing can be valuable in creating a language learning environment in which students can experience active and responsible learning while co-constructing their own knowledge. As a matter of fact, when playing a game like TSWL, they have to think about the different paths to choose to progress in the narration and, as a consequence, the mixing of diverse multimedia with game design enacts a process of critical thinking that helps their understanding and assimilation of information. Also, TSWL developed a motivating learning environment (Kocaman & Kızılkaya-Cumaoğlu, 2014; Naul & Liu, 2019) free from feelings of stress and anxiety to such an extent that some students stated: ‘I liked playing the game because I did not feel judged for my choices’ (Extracts from students’ statements to Q11). A result that is in line with the findings by Horowitz (2019).

As a consequence, embedding games in the language classroom can help both teachers provide a comfortable learning environment and students learn without perceiving judgment: a feeling that might arise especially when working with an L2. As a matter of fact, recent research (Berns et al., 2013; Roy & Schlemminger, 2014) has pointed out that designing games for specific language skills acquisition (e.g. speaking, writing, listening, reading) can be valuable support material to present even complicated topics in an entertaining way. For instance, the game described in this article – though not directly aiming at the acquisition of specific skills being an exploratory study about the use of DGBL in the classroom – comprised MWEs, generally considered a challenge for foreign learners. The author purposefully chose to introduce some IDs, LVCs, and PVs to let students start to familiarize themselves with these constructions as they are fundamental for developing language fluency. Several students showed to enjoy learning them through the game: ‘I liked learning new words and expressions’, ‘I really liked translating sentences because I learned new words’, ‘I liked the part related to Past Simple, it was the topic I liked the most’ (Extracts from students’ statements to Q11). Indeed, this study aligns with Çakır’s (2012) investigation highlighting that inserting translation exercises and further explanations about the topic investigated in digital games represents a powerful activity to enhance learning. Thus, the results showed that students benefited from the use of MALL in the language classroom from different points of view.

Accordingly, by taking into account previous research (Azar & Tan, 2020; Ducate & Lomicka, 2009; Peirce & Wade, 2012; Saran & Seferoğlu, 2010) and considering students’ opinions and perceptions and the quantitative results of this study, it can be inferred that if language topics are presented in an entertaining and pleasant way, they are more likely to engage students towards their learning and allow information retrieving.

VII Future research directions

This article aimed to shed light on the meaningful integration of technology into the ELT environment. However, even though considering all the positive aspects that emerged from this investigation, it does not aim to draw any generalization based on findings, and further research is needed to evaluate the potential impact of educational digital games in the classroom on students’ language learning outcomes.

Despite considering the study limitations, the results shown by the data analyses and the discussion allow for drawing potential future directions to improve and enhance findings. In particular, it may be helpful to evaluate whether DGBLL can be an effective instructional tool for students’ educational development if games are embedded in the curriculum and tested for a more extended period. Furthermore, different games based on diverse CEFR levels may be developed and tested not only in Secondary Schools but also with Pre-school, Primary School, and High School students to analyse their impact both in terms of language development, students’ engagement, and active participation in the learning process.

VIII Conclusions

The investigation reported positive results overall, showing how the meaningful mixing of game design and content can be valuable in teaching and learning L2 topics and constructions. However, the limitations caused by time and logistic constraints did not allow the author to conduct the study for an extended period. Therefore, the findings should be considered only as preliminary results and further research is needed to evaluate if DGBL may have an effective impact on students’ curriculum and motivation toward the teaching and learning of English as a foreign language.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The author sincerely acknowledges the Head of the I.C. San Giovanni Bosco (Naples) for granting permission to carry out the experiment; E-voluzione s.r.l. for providing the Evo-RPGE engine for the development of the game; and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive feedback that has certainly improved the article. Massimo Guarino’s friendly advice is also acknowledged.

Funding

The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by MIUR under the PON R&I Program 2014–2020 ‘Innovative Industrial Doctorates’ (grant number DOT1342747). The preliminary design of the game and the description of the narration were presented at the international conference ‘ILL 2019 – Innovation in Language Learning’ and published in the homonym Conference Proceedings.

ORCID iD

Annalisa Raffone

Notes

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