Exploring emotional support and engagement in adolescent EFL learning: The mediating role of emotion regulation strategies

Abstract

The crucial role of emotion regulation in learning has been well established, but its potential impact on the English as a foreign language (EFL) learning process remains uncertain. Examining the relationship between emotion regulation strategies and EFL learning engagement, as well as antecedent variables, has significant theoretical and practical value. This study aims to explored the potential mediating effects of emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and emotion suppression) on the associations between perceived EFL teacher social support, peer social support and EFL learning engagement among Chinese adolescents. The data were gathered through an online survey of 1,506 (776 males) 10th to 12th high school EFL learners. Structural equation modeling was used to analyse the mediation model. This study found that EFL teachers’ social support had a significant and direct effect on the three dimensions of EFL learning engagement, whereas the direct effect of peer social support was insignificant. Additionally, cognitive reappraisal significantly mediated role in the positive relationship between perceived EFL teacher support and the three dimensions of EFL learning engagement. It also mediated the positive relationship between perceived peer support and the three dimensions of EFL learning engagement. However, emotion suppression only mediated the negative link between perceived peer support and EFL behavioral engagement. These findings emphasize the need to explore the crucial role of emotion regulation strategies in EFL learning engagement.

Keywords

cognitive reappraisal EFL EFL learning engagement emotion regulation strategies perceived social supports

I Introduction

The extent of learning engagement demonstrated by English as a foreign language (EFL) learners profoundly shapes multiple aspects of their academic success, heighten learning motivation, and enhances academic accomplishments within the realm of EFL (Han, 2021; Reschly & Christenson, 2012; Wong & Liem, 2022; Zhou et al., 2023). This has increasingly become a central focus in recent years within the field of EFL research (J.J. Li et al., 2022; Vo, 2023). Self-determination theory (SDT) and attachment theory claim that social support plays an important role in sharpening attachment figures and that warmth fulfills learners’ basic psychological needs, which helps them engage more in EFL learning (Bowlby, 1988; J.J. Li et al., 2022; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Vo, 2023). An increasing number of studies have explored the positive impact of supportive relationships with warm teachers or peers on fostering higher engagement in EFL learning (Benlahcene et al., 2021; Dincer et al., 2012, 2019; Han, 2021; Luan et al., 2023).

Nevertheless, previous research still has the following gaps. First, the existing literature lacks a simultaneous exploration of the impact of emotional support from EFL teachers and peers on adolescent EFL learning engagement (Luan et al., 2023; Pan et al., 2023). Although peers and teachers significantly influence emotional regulation, academic motivation, and learning methodologies in EFL learners during adolescence (Roorda et al., 2017; H. H. Wang et al., 2023), current studies have often focused solely on EFL teachers or peers, overlooking their essential roles in social relationships (Y. Shao & Kang, 2022; Zhou et al., 2023). Moreover, many studies have narrowly targeted higher education neglecting the multifaceted factors affecting EFL learning engagement during adolescence (Luan et al., 2023). The second gap in the current research lies in the ambiguity surrounding the mechanisms through which social support links EFL learning engagement. According to the social-ecological system theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977), distal factors, such as teachers and peers, impact academic outcomes through proximal factors, such as individual emotional regulation strategies. The development of emotional regulation during adolescence, which is shaped by essential social relationships, is significantly related to academic processes (Campos et al., 2004; Hu, 2023; Solhi et al., 2023). Exploring the potential role of emotion regulation strategies is imperative, given their crucial impact on EFL learning. Current studies have predominantly focused on EFL teaching or teacher emotion regulation, overlooking the vital stages of adolescence during which learners undergo emotional development (Hu, 2023; H. Liu et al., 2023; Su & Lee, 2023; Xiao & Tian, 2023). A few studies have found that emotion regulation strategies play a crucial role in EFL learning-related outcomes (e.g. academic resilience, writing proficiency, and EFL test anxiety) (Alazemi et al., 2023; Gao & Yang, 2023; Horner et al., 2015; Kim et al., 2018; Solhi et al., 2023; Teng et al., 2020). Adolescence is the most critical stage for EFL learners to develop emotional regulation; simultaneously, it is a period during which their emotional regulation is still in the process of maturation (Compas et al., 2017; J. Wang et al., 2021). Considering the significant value of emotion-regulation strategies in the learning process of adolescent EFL learners, investigating the potential role of emotion regulation strategies contributes significantly to expanding EFL research and deepening our understanding of EFL learning engagement mechanisms.

In summary, this study seeks to explore two key research inquiries. First, is the perceived social support from EFL teachers and peers associated with EFL learning engagement? Second, do various emotion regulation strategies act as mediators in the association between perceived social support from EFL teachers and peers and learning engagement among Chinese high school EFL learners? Utilizing social-ecological system theory and SDT as the theoretical framework and employing a cross-sectional research design (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Rosa & Tudge, 2013), this study aims to investigate the relationships among perceived social support, emotion regulation strategies, and learning engagement in Chinese high school EFL learners. We employ a structural equation model to address these research questions. To enhance readability, throughout this article, we will use the term ‘social support’ as an abbreviation for perceived social support unless explicitly stated otherwise.

II Literature review

1 Social supports and EFL learning engagement

EFL learning engagement entails the degree and quality of children’s active involvement with English as a foreign language activities (Han, 2021; Vo, 2023; M.-T. Wang et al., 2019). This multidimensional construct comprises three interconnected yet distinguishable components: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement (M.-T. Wang et al., 2019). Behavioral engagement involves observable actions such as active participation, sustained effort, and persistence. Emotional engagement encapsulates the range of feelings experienced in connection with diverse EFL learning activities, encompassing positive sentiments such as enjoyment and enthusiasm, as well as negative emotions such as frustration and anxiety. Cognitive engagement encompasses mental processes, including focused attention, the application of suitable learning strategies for specific tasks, and a readiness to surpass anticipated levels of effort (M.-T. Wang et al., 2019). A growing body of research suggested that EFL academic engagement is associated with improved EFL academic performance and academic success and serves as a crucial indicator of EFL academic outcomes (M.-R.A. Chen et al., 2022; Han, 2021; Z. Li & Li, 2022; Vo, 2023).

Based on the framework of the social-ecological system theory, EFL learners’ engagement in EFL learning can be viewed as a function of the social environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Based on attachment theory, the warmth and caring social support provided by EFL teachers can serve as substitute attachment figures and role models, as well as a secure base for adolescent EFL learners (Bowlby, 1988). The higher EFL learners’ perceived social support from EFL teachers, the more actively they can cope with challenges in the EFL learning process and continuously engage in cognitive, emotional, and behavioral EFL learning. Previous research has shown that the higher the perceived social support of EFL teachers, the higher the level of EFL learning engagement among college students (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2021; Zhou et al., 2023). For example, a cross-sectional study of 435 Iranian university EFL learners as participants found that their perceived social support from EFL teachers could directly predict their EFL learning engagement (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2021). Perceived teacher emotional support demonstrated a more substantial effect size than autonomy or academic support in influencing student achievement (Tao et al., 2022). Similarly, according to the SDT, increased peer support empowers learners to delve into their academic interests, potentially leading to a greater sense of autonomy (Basson & Rothmann, 2018; Benlahcene et al., 2021; H.X. Chen & Zhang, 2022; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Dincer et al., 2019; Luan et al., 2023; Olivier et al., 2021). The high encouragement and emotional comfort provided by EFL teachers and peers in terms of social support also contribute to enhancing students’ confidence in EFL learning, making them feel capable of learning endeavors (higher competence) (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Finally, the positive encouragement, support, and empathy demonstrated by EFL teachers and peers foster a sense of connection between learners and these important social relationships. Consequently, increased warmth and support from EFL teachers and peers enhance learners’ engagement with EFL learning (Dincer et al., 2019; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Only one study, conducted by Luan et al. (2023), found that both teacher and peer support significantly and positively promoted cognitive, emotional, and social engagement among college EFL learners, although it did not include behavioral engagement as an outcome variable. Moreover, most previous studies have combined the three components of academic engagement into one latent variable factor (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2023; Y. Yang & Du, 2023). However, considering that the three components of learning engagement are different from each other and may have different influences or mechanisms of action (M.-T. Wang et al., 2019), it is necessary to explore the relationship between social support and the three components of EFL learning engagement simultaneously.

2 The potential mediation roles of emotional regulation strategies

Emotional regulation, refers to an individual’s capacity to adjust and modify their own emotions, responses to emotions, or reactions to situations that evoke emotions (Gross, 1998). Adolescence plays a pivotal role in the development of learners’ emotional regulation abilities (Compas et al., 2017; H. H. Wang et al., 2023; J. Wang et al., 2021). Emotional regulation plays a fundamental role in academic performance (Bergin & Bergin, 2009; Quílez-Robres et al., 2023). In the process of acquiring English as a foreign language, EFL learners constantly face challenges presented by learning materials and tasks. They must actively and effectively cope with academic setbacks (Cui et al., 2023; K. Shao et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2023). Therefore, positive and effective emotion-regulation strategies may play a significant role in EFL learning processes and outcomes. However, limited research has elucidated the potential contribution of emotion regulation strategies in the EFL learning process. For instance, previous research that utilized triangulated data from whole-class surveys, focus group interviews, and toolkits has found that implementing EFL learning boredom regulation interventions – focused on reappraisals and boredom coping, and targeting emotions related to EFL learning – can effectively alleviate learners’ boredom (Nakamura et al., 2024). Further exploration is needed to enhance the understanding of EFL learners’ learning experiences, particularly in delving more deeply into the potential role of emotion regulation strategies.

Social-ecological system theory claims that EFL teachers and peers play pivotal roles as microsystem factors that influence learners’ developmental outcomes, collectively shaping individuals’ EFL outcomes (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). According to the proximal-distal hypothesis of social-ecological system theory, as crucial microsystem factors, EFL teachers and peers, through their social support, indirectly impact learners’ EFL learning engagement by facilitating or hindering individual-level factors (emotion regulation strategies in this study) (Azpiazu et al., 2023; Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Horner & Wallace, 2013; H. H. Wang et al., 2023). Consequently, this influence extends to shaping learners’ overall learning engagement in the context of EFL. Different emotional strategies are often classified as either ‘adaptive’ or ‘maladaptive’, depending on their immediate impact on affect, behavior, and cognition. Cognitive reappraisal and emotion suppression are two widely studied emotion regulation strategies (Gross & John, 2003). Cognitive reappraisal, often categorized as an ‘antecedent-focused’ approach (N. Li et al., 2023), involves reinterpreting a potentially emotion-inducing situation in a manner that modifies its emotional impact before it fully unfolds. In contrast, emotion suppression is a strategy focused on responding to emotions, entailing the active inhibition of ongoing expressive behavior associated with emotions.

Perceived social support among EFL learners may be associated with their higher levels of cognitive reappraisal strategies. Warmth social support from teachers or peers may be related to better cognitive reappraisal strategies (N Li et al., 2023; H.F. Yang et al., 2021). Learners observe and emulate how their peers and teachers express and regulate their emotions. If they perceive encouragement, support, and warm reassurance from their peers and EFL teachers, they are inclined to develop positive emotion regulation strategies (H. H. Wang et al., 2023). The perception of a positive emotional climate makes them more prone to engage in cognitive reappraisal, changing their perspectives and attitudes toward challenges and thus influencing their emotions. Therefore, the higher the support from EFL teachers and peers, the higher the level of cognitive reappraisal among EFL learners (Morris et al., 2007; H. H. Wang et al., 2023). Furthermore, cognitive reappraisal strategies could help learners reinterpreting situations that evoke emotions in EFL learning, which may help them cope with challenges within the EFL process as valuable learning opportunities and foster a greater commitment to sustained effort and heightened behavioral engagement (Datu et al., 2023; Luan et al., 2023; Strain & D’Mello, 2015). Simultaneously, they are more likely to effectively alleviate the hindrance of negative emotions toward EFL, thereby contributing to enhanced emotional engagement. Additionally, these learners are also more likely to perceive EFL as a continuous process of embracing challenges, which enables them to adopt a more goal-oriented approach and reduce the arousal of negative emotions. This, in turn, allows them to invest more cognitive resources in learning (Datu et al., 2023; Strain & D’Mello, 2015). In summary, the adoption of cognitive reappraisal strategies appears to promote all three dimensions of EFL engagement. This claim is supported by a small number of relevant studies, suggesting that cognitive reappraisal is associated with better learning engagement (Datu et al., 2023; Strain & D’Mello, 2015).

Adolescents who perceive a lack of peer support are often at greater risk of social exclusion or being overlooked by peer groups (Arslan, 2018; Lee et al., 2022). Previous research has indicated that acceptance by peer groups is highly valued by adolescents (LaFontana & Cillessen, 2010). Emotion suppression is an instrumental emotion regulation strategy employed to maintain and enhance relationships with peer groups (English et al., 2017; Kalokerinos et al., 2014). It can assist adolescents in reducing overt emotional expressions, such as facial expressions, thereby avoiding conflicts with peer groups and refraining from expressing attitudes or opinions that may be inconsistent with those of peers, further jeopardizing peer support (Kalokerinos et al., 2014; Wylie et al., 2023; Zimmermann & Iwanski, 2014). Previous experimental studies have demonstrated that individuals adopt emotion suppression strategies, such as inhibiting their own facial expressions, to protect their peers’ feelings (Kalokerinos et al., 2014). Therefore, EFL learners who perceive their peers as unsupportive or even exclude or overlook them are more likely to employ emotion suppression to gain peer support and protect themselves from being excluded. Similarly, teachers form one of the most important social relationships for adolescent EFL learners. When EFL learners perceive little warmth and emotional support from their teachers, they may decrease or avoid expressing their true emotions, thus seeking to accommodate or enhance recognition and emotional support from their teachers or at least reduce potential conflicts with unsupportive teachers. Second, towing to a lack of warmth and caring social support from teachers, these learners may also miss out on opportunities to receive social training and emotional feedback from communicating with teachers, thereby lacking opportunities to develop other emotion regulation strategies. Hence, they tend to adopt relatively easy-to-form formed emotion suppression strategies (Sheppes & Gross, 2011; Wylie et al., 2023).

EFL adolescents often experience a variety of complex and dynamic academic-related emotions during their learning processes, such as enjoyment, pride, boredom, and guilt (De Neve et al., 2023; Feng et al., 2023; Pavelescu & Petric, 2018). Academic-related emotional experiences are closely intertwined with students’ engagement in EFL studies (Tsang & Dewaele, 2023; H. H. Wang et al., 2023; Zhong et al., 2023). If EFL learners excessively utilize emotion suppression strategies, they may dampen their experiences and responses to both positive and negative emotions (Anderson et al., 2021). These learners may find it more challenging to maintain a higher level of interest and focus on EFL learning tasks and are also more likely to struggle to follow teacher instructions (Boehme et al., 2019; Djambazova-Popordanoska, 2016; Jarrell et al., 2022). Consequently, their emotional, cognitive, and behavioral engagement with EFL may decrease (Tsang & Dewaele, 2023; M.-T. Wang et al., 2019; H. H. Wang et al., 2023; Zhong et al., 2023).

3 The Chinese social culture contexts

Exploring the intricacies of EFL learning engagement within the unique tapestry of China’s socio-cultural landscape reveals a promising avenue for expanding our comprehension of the aforementioned process: First, the cultural specificity of emotion suppression in Chinese EFL learner’s learning engagement is noteworthy. Cultural ties to emotion regulation have been observed, with Western contexts linking emotion suppression to poorer mental health, while findings in Eastern societies, such as China, show inconsistencies and even suggest no significant relationship (Tsai & Lu, 2018). This cultural variance is attributed to the Western emphasis on individualism and Eastern stress on collectivism, where harmony within the group is paramount (Tsai & Lu, 2018). Consequently, emotion suppression may function compatibly within the Chinese culture, fostering group harmony without compromising individual adaptability (Huwae & Schaafsma, 2018; Nam et al., 2018; Schouten et al., 2020). As globalization exposes contemporary Chinese adolescents to Western values, examining emotion suppression in their EFL learning enhances our cultural insights into EFL research under the social change process.

Second, Chinese individuals, who are rooted in collectivist values, prioritize significant social relationships and seek support from others representing the collective (G. Wang & Liu, 2010). Positive interactions with teachers and peers align with traditional Chinese values, making the support received from these sources particularly valuable for EFL learners. Examining these factors within China’s socio-cultural context provides a nuanced perspective on the influencing factors and underlying mechanisms of the EFL learning process, enhancing our understanding of how emotion-regulation strategies function in the context of Chinese EFL learners.

Third, EFL learning is closely linked to the social environment and educational system in which learners are situated. For instance, Chinese high school EFL learners face the challenge of the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE or Gaokao). English is a crucial subject in the NCEE in China. Chinese high school students must continually navigate the process of EFL learning, along with the challenges posed by Gaokao. Consequently, the emotional regulation of Chinese high school EFL learners is important for their EFL learning outcomes (G.X.Y. Liu & Heiwig, 2022).

III The present study

EFL teachers and peer support, which serve as distal factors, may further impact EFL learning engagement by influencing proximal factors (emotion regulation strategies) (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). This study aims to investigate the direct effects of EFL teacher support and peer support on EFL learning engagement among adolescent Chinese EFL learners. Additionally, this study explores the potential mediating effects of the two emotion regulation strategies (Figure 1). The study proposes the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Perceived support from EFL teachers positively predicts EFL learning engagement.

Hypothesis 2: Perceived support from peers positively predicts EFL learning engagement.

Hypothesis 3: Cognitive reappraisal mediates the positive relationship between perceived support from EFL teachers and EFL learning engagement.

Hypothesis 4: Cognitive reappraisal mediates the positive relationship between perceived peer support and EFL learning engagement.

Hypothesis 5: Emotion suppression mediates the positive relationship between perceived support from EFL teachers and EFL learning engagement. The lower the perceived support from EFL teachers, the higher the emotion suppression, and the lower the EFL learning engagement.

Hypothesis 6: Emotion suppression mediates the positive relationship between perceived peer support and EFL learning engagement. The lower the perceived support from peers, the higher the emotion suppression, and the lower the EFL learning engagement.

Figure 1.

Conceptual model.

IV Method

1 Participants and procedure

This study adhered to ethical guidelines and obtained approval from the Institutional Review Board of the first author. Using cluster convenience sampling, the participants were 1,601 students from a high school in Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China. Ninety-five participants either did not complete the questionnaire or showed consistent response patterns, and they were excluded. The final sample comprised 1,506 students, with an average age of 16.50 years (776 males, 51.5%). All the participants were Han Chinese nationals with Mandarin as their native language. The average duration of formal English language learning at the time of data collection was 9.14 years. All the participants successfully passed the Chinese High School Entrance Examination, indicating English proficiency. They self-reported their EFL proficiency using a questionnaire (1 = poor, 5 = proficient), with the present sample rating their English proficiency as intermediate (M = 2.73, SD = 1.46).

After reading and signing an online informed consent form, all participants and their guardians accessed an online survey website via smartphones or computers to complete and submit the questionnaire. Teachers from the students’ school sent the survey link to the guardians’ mobile phones. High school teachers, who had received training from the researchers, explained the research purposes and provided instructions for completing the questionnaire to parents and students. We thank the participants for submitting the questionnaire.

2 Measures

a Perceived social supports

The adapted 3-item Emotional Support Subscale of the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale was used to measure the participants’ perceived emotional support from their EFL teachers (Tennant et al., 2015). We revised and translated the original scale in three steps, according to the theme of our study. In the first step, we modified the original phrase ‘my teacher’ to ‘my English teacher’. Next, the second author translated the modified items into Chinese (Mandarin). Finally, the first author back-translated the Chinese items into English, and this translation was reviewed by the second author to ensure semantic equivalence and alignment with the intended meaning of the items. Participants are required to respond to scale questions on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree), indicating the extent to which the items reflect their perceived level of support from their EFL teacher (My EFL teacher makes it okay to ask questions). Higher scores indicate a higher perception of emotional support from the EFL teacher. The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) results revealed that the model was saturated. All standardized factor loadings, as per Hu and Bentler’s (1999) recommendation, surpassed the .45 threshold and were significant (p < .001). Cronbach’s alpha was .85 in present sample.

b Peer support

The translated version of three items Caring Peer Relationships in School Scale (Lam et al., 2012), was employed to assess students’ perception of peer support. The authors of this study employed a standard back-translation process to translate the original scale (translated into Mandarin Chinese) and back-translated it to ensure that the final Mandarin Chinese version aligned with the original meaning of the scale and the language conventions of Chinese adolescents. Participants were asked to express their agreement with these statements on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) (sample item: At my school, I have a friend who really cares about me). The average score of the items represented students’ overall perceived support levels, with higher scores indicating a greater perception of peer support. This scale has demonstrated good reliability and validity in previous research (Lam et al., 2012). The results of the CFA in the present study revealed that the model is saturated. All standardized factor loadings, as per Hu and Bentler’s (1999) recommendation, surpassed the .45 threshold and were significant (p < .001). Cronbach’s alpha for this sample was .92.

c Emotion regulation strategies

This study utilized the Chinese-adapted version of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ–CA), which consists of 10 items, to assess participants’ emotion regulation strategies (Gullone et al., 2011). Participants responded to their emotional strategies on Likert 5-points scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). This scale consisted of reappraisal (sample item: When I want to feel happier, I think about something different) and suppression subscale (sample item: I control my feelings by not showing them). CFA results revealed that the construct validity of this scale was ideal: χ² = 170.57, df = 28, p < .001, χ²/df = 16.09, GFI = .98, IFI = .97, TLI = .96, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .06 (90% confidence interval [CI] = [.05, .07]). The standardized factor loadings for all items were significant (p < .001) and above 0.45, indicating good validity of the scale (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Cronbach’s alphas for the reappraisal and suppression subscale were .86 and .76, respectively.

d EFL learning engagement

In this study, an adapted version of Sun and Rueda’s (2012) scale was used to evaluate EFL learning engagement (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement). Due to practical constraints and time limitations in Chinese high schools, we employed a modified scale in this study. This adaptation involved refining the original scale, which was initially designed for online learning engagement assessment, to gauge high school students’ involvement in offline EFL learning. These adjustments were made to better align with the objectives of our study and the EFL learning context in Chinese high schools. Adjustments to the wording of the original scale were made by a PhD expert in psychometrics and authors familiar with EFL practices and the learning context of Chinese EFL high schools, to align better with the offline EFL learning background of Chinese high school EFL learners. Additionally, the readability of the final scale was confirmed through interviews with three Chinese high school students (two females one male) during the pilot study.

The scale encompassed dimensions such as behavioral engagement (3 items, e.g. I complete the materials and exercises assigned by the EFL teacher on time), emotional engagement (6 items, e.g. I am interested in the tasks in EFL class), and cognitive engagement (5 items, e.g. When studying the materials for the EFL class, I ask myself questions to ensure I truly understand the content). Participants indicated their level of agreement on a 1–5 Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree), and subscale scores were calculated by computing the mean of the items, providing a comprehensive representation of EFL learning engagement. CFA results revealed that the construct validity of this scale was good: χ² = 137.39, df = 71, p < .001, χ²/df = 1.94, GFI = .95, IFI = .97, TLI = .97, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .05 (90% confidence interval [CI] = [.04, .06]). All standardized factor loadings were larger than the .45 threshold and were significant (p < .001) (Hu & Bentler, 1999). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha for behavioral engagement was .78, emotional engagement was .85, and cognitive engagement was .84.

e Covariate variable

As formal English language learning history (years) is related to EFL academic outcomes (Hiver et al., 2021), in this study, it was treated as a covariate and represented as a continuous variable (M = 9.14, SD = 2.18).

3 Data analysis

This study employed AMOS software (version 26.0) to conduct the CFA and construct a measurement model (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The maximum likelihood mean-adjusted (MLM) estimation method was used. Model fit was evaluated using the following fit indices: goodness-of-fit index (GFI) exceeding .95, comparative fit index (CFI) exceeding .90, Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) exceeding .95, and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) below .06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). These metrics were used to assess the model quality. Subsequently, SPSS (version 26.0) was utilized for descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and assessment of common method bias. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to investigate the direct effects of EFL teacher and peer support on the three dimensions of EFL learning engagement, along with the mediating effects of two emotional strategies (reappraisal and suppression). The significance of the hypothesis model was examined by using the bias-corrected bootstrapping approach, with a 95% confidence interval (Preacher et al., 2007). A 95% confidence interval that does not include at value of zero indicates the statistical significance of the indirect effect (Hayes, 2009, 2013).

V Results

1 Preliminary analyses

Harman’s single-factor test was used to evaluate the existence of common method bias. The results indicated that the factor loading of the primary factor was 34.20%, suggesting the absence of substantial common method bias, as per Podsakoff and Organ (1986).

CFA was conducted to validate the measurement model. The model exhibited satisfactory fit to the data: χ² = 1,518.96, df = 376, p < .001, χ²/df = 4.04, GFI = .94, IFI = .96, TLI = .96, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .05 (90% confidence interval [CI] = [.04, .05]). In the present sample, all standardized factor loadings were not only statistically significant (p < .001) but also surpassed the threshold of .45, as recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999). This indicated a robust associations between the measured variables and their respective latent factors in our study. Table 1 provides a comprehensive overview of the correlations among the variables, along with the descriptive statistics for the core variables.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics correlation coefficient matrix (N = 1,506).

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. Peer support	1
2. EFL teacher support	.24**	1
3. Cognitive reappraisal	.23**	.22**	1
4. Emotional suppression	.24**	−.10**	.21**	1
5. Behavior engagement	.22**	.42**	.26**	−.10**	1
6. Emotions engagement	.24**	.42**	.26**	−.07**	.73**	1
7. Cognition engagement	.18**	.33**	.29**	−.03	.62**	.77**	1
M	3.96	4.76	22.10	12.12	3.72	3.39	3.13
SD	.93	1.15	4.01	3.25	.91	.95	.95
95 % CI for mean	3.91, 4.01	4.70, 4.81	21.90, 22.30	11.96, 12.29	3.67, 3.76	3.34, 3.44	3.08, 3.18

Note: Peer support and EFL teacher support are abbreviations for perceived peer social support and perceived EFL teacher social support respectively. 95% CI for mean = 95% Confidence interval for mean, reported as two numbers representing the lower and upper bounds, respectively. **p < 0.01.

2 Mediation model

An indirect effects model was established to test the hypotheses. This model fit the data well: χ² = 1,509.32, df = 400, p < .001, χ²/df = 3.77, GFI = .94, IFI = .97, TLI = .96, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .04 (90% confidence interval [CI] = [.04, .05]). As shown in Figure 2 and Table 2, EFL teacher support was significantly positively related to higher EFL behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement (ps < .001). Moreover, the reappraisal strategies significantly mediated the positive links between EFL teacher support and three EFL learning engagement (indirect effects on behavioral engagement: β = .03, 95% CI [.02, .05]; emotional engagement: β = .03, 95% CI [.02, .05]; cognitive engagement: β = .03, 95% CI [.02, .05]) (ps < .001); Suppression strategies failed to mediated to relationships between EFL teacher support and EFL learning engagement (indirect effects on behavioral engagement: β = .00, 95% CI [−.00, .01]; emotional engagement: β = .00, 95% CI [−.00, .01]; cognitive engagement: β = .00, 95% CI [−.00, .01]) (ps > .05).

Figure 2.

Mediation model of the association between social support (EFL teacher support and peer support) and EFL learning engagement via reappraisal and suppression with unstandardized beta weights and significance levels.

Table 2.

Standardized indirect effects from English as a foreign language (EFL) teacher and peer support to EFL learning engagement (N = 1,506).

Indirect paths	Standardized indirect effect	SE	p	95% CI standardized indirect effect
				Boot LLCI Boot ULCL
EFL teacher support → reappraisal → behavioral engagement	.03	.01	.001**	[.02, .05]
EFL teacher support → reappraisal → emotional engagement	.03	.01	.001**	[.02, .05]
EFL teacher support → reappraisal → cognitive engagement	.03	.01	.001**	[.02, .05]
EFL teacher support → suppression → behavioral engagement	.00	.00	.50	[−.00, .01]
EFL teacher support → suppression → emotional engagement	.00	.00	.38	[−.00, .01]
EFL teacher support → suppression → cognitive engagement	.00	.00	.39	[−.00, .01]
EFL peer support → reappraisal → behavioral engagement	.03	.01	.001**	[.02, .05]
EFL peer support → reappraisal → emotional engagement	.03	.01	.001**	[.01, .05]
EFL peer support → reappraisal → cognitive engagement	.03	.01	.001**	[.02, .05]
EFL peer support → suppression → behavioral engagement	.03	.01	. 01*	[.02, .05]
EFL peer support → suppression → emotional engagement	.03	.01	. 001	[−.00, .04]
EFL peer support → suppression → cognitive engagement	.03	.01	. 001	[−.00, .03]

Note. EFL teacher support and peer support are abbreviations for perceived EFL teacher social support and perceived peer social support, respectively. CI = confidence interval. These values are based on standardized path coefficients. All parameter estimates and significance tests are based on 5,000 bootstrapped samples. LLCI = low limit; ULCL = upper limit. Significant effects are determined by both 95% CI that does not include zero and p < 0.05. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01.

Simultaneously, the direct effect of peer support on three EFL learning engagements was not significant (ps > .05). Reappraisal strategies significantly mediated the positive links between EFL peer support and three EFL learning engagement (indirect effects on behavioral engagement: β = .03, 95% CI [.02, .05]; emotional engagement: β = .03, 95% CI [.01, .05]; cognitive engagement: β = .03, 95% CI [.02, .05]) (ps < .001); Suppression strategies only significantly mediated the positive relationships between peer support and EFL behavioral engagement (indirect effects on behavioral engagement: β = .03, 95% CI [.02, .05], p < .05; emotional engagement: β = .03, 95% CI [−.00, .04], p < .001; cognitive engagement: β = .00, 95% CI [−.00, .03], p < .001). The path coefficients of the model are presented in Figure 2 and Table 2.

VI Discussion

Understanding the factors and mechanisms affecting EFL learning engagement is a crucial focus of contemporary EFL research. This study, conducted with Chinese high school EFL learners, employed a comprehensive cross-sectional research design. Through the formulation and evaluation of a structural equation model, we aimed to explore the direct effects of social support from EFL teachers and peers on various dimensions of EFL academic engagement, namely behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. Additionally, this study explored the mediating role of emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and emotion suppression) in these relationships.

1 Social supports and EFL learning engagement

Consistent with hypothesis 1, we observed a significant positive correlation between social support from EFL teachers and three dimensions of EFL learning engagement.

The study findings of this study support the attachment theory. As learners develop a secure and warm attachment base with their EFL teachers internally, they are more likely to actively explore EFL and demonstrate higher levels of learning engagement (Bowlby, 1988). Consequently, learners are more likely to develop positive academic motivation and exhibit greater engagement in the behavioral, emotional, and cognitive aspects of the EFL learning process. This discovery is also in line with previous research findings that emphasized the crucial role of EFL teachers’ social support in influencing EFL learning engagement (Jin & Wang, 2019; Luan et al., 2023; Solhi, 2023).

Nonetheless, we observed that the presumed direct impacts of perceived peer support on the three dimensions of EFL learning engagement were not statistically significant, thus contradicting hypothesis 2. This finding is inconsistent with previous studies examining college students’ engagement in online EFL learning (Luan et al., 2023), prompting the consideration of two plausible explanations: In the higher education stage of China, EFL online education frequently employs methods such as peer group cooperation and peer assessment, making emotional support from peers more likely to directly enhance EFL learners’ motivation to keep pace with the course, foster a greater preference for EFL learning, and engage in more self-directed learning. Thus, the study by Luan et al. (2023) found significant direct effects. However, in Chinese high schools, EFL learning still relies predominantly on teacher-centered instruction with less emphasis on peer group collaboration. Simultaneously, stricter regulations exist regarding classroom discipline, potentially limiting the direct facilitating effect of emotional support from peers on EFL learners’ learning goals, motivation, and subsequent learning engagement. Therefore, the direct effect of peer support is not significant. Second, one possible reason is that peer social support has a more generalized impact on learners’ psychological and behavioral aspects, and it may not directly facilitate or hinder EFL learning engagement. Peer support is likely to exert more influence more by influencing impacting adolescents’ proximal factors, thereby affecting their EFL learning engagement (M.-T. Wang & Eccles, 2013). The significant and fully mediating effect of peer support, as discussed the subsequent sections, aligns with this explanation.

2 The mediation effects of emotional regulation strategies

This empirical study found that cognitive reappraisal significantly mediated the positive relationship between perceived EFL teacher support and the three dimensions of EFL learning engagement. Additionally, it significantly mediated the positive relationship between perceived peer support and the three dimensions of EFL learning engagement, supporting hypotheses 3 and 4. The findings of this study align with the hypotheses derived from the social-ecological system theory, extending its explanatory scope to the realms of social relationships, emotion regulation, and EFL learning. Despite the widespread attention given to the social-ecological system theory in educational research (Bluteau et al., 2017; Bronfenbrenner, 1977; McLinden, 2017), only a few individual EFL studies have realized the significant value of the theory in revealing the factors and mechanisms influencing complex EFL learning outputs (Alzaanin, 2023; Guo & Lee, 2023; Ngo et al., 2022a, 2022b; Sadoughi et al., 2023; Shen & Chong, 2023). The results provide a socio-ecological system-based research perspective for future research on EFL learning outcomes (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Specifically, our results demonstrate that both EFL teachers support and peer support, as crucial distal factors, can influence learners’ EFL learning engagement by affecting the proximal factor of emotion regulation strategies, which serves as a mediating variable. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the only empirical study to reveal the mediating effect of cognitive reappraisal strategies in the EFL learning process. Our findings underscore the pivotal role of emotion-regulation strategies in EFL learning processes. EFL teachers are crucial role models for recognizing and managing emotions as significant social figures for adolescent EFL learners (Bowlby, 1988). High levels of warmth, encouragement, and emotional support provided by EFL teachers cultivates a positive emotional atmosphere, aiding EFL learners in acquiring adaptive cognitive reappraisal strategies. This enables EFL learners to approach challenges and difficulties with beliefs and thoughts that facilitate a more positive outlook, thereby improving their emotional states. When EFL learners are inclined to use cognitive reappraisal strategies, they effectively mitigate the effect of negative emotions on their learning processes and exhibit higher behavioral engagement. At the same time, they are more likely to possess sufficient cognitive resources to set EFL learning goals, engage in self-regulated learning, and develop a fondness for EFL learning.

Similarly, peers play a crucial role in adolescent EFL learners’ emotional skill development and socialization. Elevated levels of peer support assist EFL learners in acquiring cognitive reappraisal strategies, making them more adept at flexibly and effectively applying these strategies to navigate the setbacks and challenges encountered in the EFL learning process and ultimately demonstrating higher levels of EFL learning engagement.

Although significant and reliable mediation effects were observed, it is noteworthy that the beta coefficients of the mediation effects were relatively small. This may be attributed to the complexity of the relationships explored by the model constructed in this study, or it may suggest the presence of other factors that could significantly influence EFL learning engagement. Future research should employ different measurement tools or develop new EFL-specific emotion regulation scales to replicate the findings of this study and compare the effect sizes.

Surprisingly, emotion suppression emerged as a significant mediator only in the link between perceived peer support and EFL behavioral engagement. In contrast, its mediating effects were not found to be significant in the relationships between peer support and the other two dimensions of EFL learning engagement, as well as in the relationships between perceived EFL teacher support and all three dimensions of EFL learning engagement. Although these findings partially support hypothesis 6, they completely contradict hypothesis 5.

If EFL learners perceive limited emotional support and encouragement from their peers, as indicated by our findings, they are more likely to develop higher levels of emotion suppression strategies. While attempting to manage their emotional responses, they tend to employ emotion suppression, denying their true internal emotional states. Consequently, they are less likely to keep pace with the teaching progress of EFL teachers and accomplish the tasks assigned by EFL teachers in the EFL learning process.

Maintaining positive peer relationships and being accepted by peers are crucial for adolescent EFL learners. When EFL learners perceive a lack of support from their peers, they may adopt the strategy of suppressing their individual emotions to avoid further exclusion and neglect within the peer group (Tajfel, 1974). Consequently, they develop higher levels of emotional inhibition. Guided by this strategy, when adolescents experience emotional reactions during the EFL learning process, they choose to deny the feelings of pressure and anger related to English learning difficulties. However, the negation of negative emotional states continues to impair their emotional well-being and academic motivation. This disrupts their attention and prevents them from actively following the teaching pace set by the EFL teachers.

This finding can also be explained through the lens of China’s cultural background. As a typical collectivist society, Chinese adolescent EFL learners aspire to conform to behavioral response patterns that align with peer group and societal norms (Huwae & Schaafsma, 2018; G. Wang & Liu, 2010). They seek to use emotional inhibition to maintain harmonious group relationships and meet the expectations of peer groups and societal norms, aiming to gain acceptance, support, and praise from their peers. However, as adolescents inevitably encounter challenges and setbacks in the EFL learning process, their ability to employ adaptive strategies to cope with emotions will impact their ability to remain focused on EFL teacher instruction and engage diligently in EFL learning tasks. Emotional strategies conforming to societal and cultural values ultimately undermine behavioral engagement.

Emotion suppression did not significantly mediate the links between peer support, EFL cognitive engagement and emotional engagement. This aligns with previous research perspectives, indicating that learning engagement is a distinct construct, with different antecedents and potential causal mechanisms (M.-T. Wang et al., 2019). In this study, there might be other moderating variables that influence the relationship between emotional suppression and EFL cognitive engagement and emotional engagement, but not significantly affect the relationship between emotion suppression and EFL behavioral engagement. The Development-in-Sociocultural-Context Model for Children’s Engagement in Learning suggests the existence of moderating variables at both the school and individual levels that may moderate the learning engagement process (M.-T. Wang et al., 2019). For instance, a cross-sectional study discovered that the association between mindsets and Iranian EFL learners’ academic engagement was moderated by learning experience (Sadoughi et al., 2023). Future research could build upon this theoretical model to further explore potential mechanisms or employ methodologies, such as latent profile analysis to investigate the existence of different latent profiles of EFL learning engagement and the potential antecedents of these distinct profiles (J.J. Li et al., 2022).

Similarly, this study found no significant mediating effect of emotional suppression between EFL teacher support and EFL learning engagement. As an exploratory study, no existing research has examined this issue, and we engaged in speculative discussions about the results. Based on the model paths, the relationship between EFL teacher support and emotion suppression was not significant, whereas peer support was significantly and negatively correlated with emotion suppression. This suggests that, in contrast to the effects of peer support, EFL teacher support may not significantly promote the development of learners’ emotion suppression, leading to a nonsignificant mediating effect of emotion suppression. This may imply that EFL teachers and peer support have different patterns of influence on adolescents’ emotional strategy formation. Future research should further explore this issue to build upon the findings of this study and to validate our hypotheses.

3 Implications

This study has several theoretical implications. First, by revealing the crucial role of emotion-regulation strategies in the learning process of adolescent EFL learners, this study contributes to the direction of EFL research by enhancing our understanding of the pivotal role of emotion regulation. Furthermore, it advances a more comprehensive model of the EFL learning theory. Second, this present study provides a mechanism of action by which social support works, either by facilitating or hindering emotion-regulation strategies, thus exerting a consequential impact on EFL learning engagement, whether in a positive or negative manner. Third, this emphasis broadens the application of social-ecological systems theory, accentuating the significance of concurrently investigating both proximal and distal factors to gain insights into the EFL learning process (Guo & Lee, 2023).

The findings of the present study have several practical implications. First, the support perceived by EFL teachers has a direct impact on EFL learners’ engagement, underscoring the need for EFL teachers to strengthen their emotional and social support for adolescent learners. Second, we highlighted the critical role of emotion regulation strategies in the EFL learning process. Therefore, EFL teaching practices should prioritize interventions focused on adolescent learners’ emotion-regulation strategies, paying special attention to the development of their emotion reappraisal strategies. Schools can enhance the social support for EFL teachers and learners through psychoeducation and workshops. Additionally, they can provide instructions on the basic techniques and principles of cognitive behavioral therapy (Segal et al., 2023; Troy et al., 2013). This can help foster the development of cognitive reappraisal strategies and reduce reliance on emotion suppression strategies.

4 Limitations and future directions

This study has several limitations. First, social support was based on subjective reports from participants rather than reports from EFL teachers and peers, introducing the possibility of bias due to participants’ subjective perceptions. Future research should consider collecting data from multiple sources, including reports from EFL teachers, peers, and learners. Second, the study utilized a cross-sectional research design to prevent the establishment of causal relationships. Future studies should employ longitudinal or experimental designs to draw more causal conclusions. Third, the study did not explore factors and mechanisms related to other dimensions of EFL learning engagement, such as social engagement (Hiver et al., 2024). Future research should investigate a broader spectrum of EFL learning engagement dimensions.

VII Conclusions

Conducted with a large sample size and grounded in theoretical frameworks such as the social-ecological system theory, this study explored the mediating roles of cognitive reappraisal and emotion suppression in the connection between perceived social support (EFL teacher support and peer support) and the three dimensions of EFL learning engagement. The outcomes of this study enhance our understanding of the pivotal roles of perceived social support and emotion regulation strategies in the EFL learning journey of adolescent learners. The insights gained inspire future educational practices to focus on nurturing and valuing adaptive emotion regulation strategies.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Yuchi Zhang and Yibin Hu contributed equally to this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Elite Doctoral Research Initiation Project of Jiangsu Normal University (grant number 20XSRX013).

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

Ethics approval statement

The study followed the Declaration of Helsinki and received ethical approval from the ethics committee of the first authors’ affiliations.

ORCID iD

Yuchi Zhang

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