Culinary involvement,cultural background,and culinary expertise: Interconnections between destination pull factors,culinary destination image,culinary experiences,and loyalty in Hanoi’s culinary tourism

Abstract

This study investigates the intricate interplay between destination pull factors, culinary destination image, culinary experiences, and culinary destination loyalty within the unique culinary landscape of Hanoi, Vietnam. Using a mixed-methodology approach, quantitative data were collected from 670 Vietnamese travelers, complemented by qualitative insights from 15 Vietnamese travelers. Grounded in the Stimulus-Organism-Response theory, structural equation modeling was used to test the hypotheses. The results demonstrate relationships among destination pull factors, culinary destination image, culinary experiences, and culinary destination loyalty, along with mediating effects of culinary destination image and culinary experiences and moderating effects of culinary involvement. The findings reveal two main themes: Cultural background, which encompasses three dimensions: food enthusiasts and cultural ambassadors, the influence of cultural heritage on culinary exploration, and culinary traditions as cultural connectors in travel experiences; and culinary expertise, comprising two dimensions: professional culinary expertise and culinary exploration and education. By emphasizing Hanoi’s unique position as a gastronomic hub, this study provides a conceptual framework for future research that applies the SOR theory to the culinary domain and offers practical strategies for enhancing culinary tourism, applicable to other destinations with similar cultural and culinary attributes on the global stage.

Keywords

Destination pull factors cultural background culinary expertise culinary destination image culinary experiences culinary involvement culinary destination loyalty

Introduction

Exploring culinary tourism activities in Vietnam is of both scholarly and practical significance for several reasons. Firstly, by examining Vietnamese destination pull factors (DPF), this research contributes to understanding food’s critical role in shaping travel experiences (Galati et al., 2023; Sthapit et al., 2023). This focus on motivation factors (Kalpidis et al., 2023; Su et al., 2020) highlights a significant gap in the literature regarding how traditional Vietnamese cuisine can attract tourists, thereby informing strategic marketing initiatives and refining culinary tourism offerings. Secondly, investigating Vietnam’s culinary destination image (CDI) is crucial as it directly influences culinary experiences (CEX), affecting their loyalty to the destination (Putra et al., 2023; Sutiadiningsih et al., 2023). By identifying and enhancing the attributes that shape Vietnam’s culinary image, this study aims to enrich the existing literature on CDI and provide actionable insights for stakeholders to develop a distinctive culinary brand that thrives in a competitive tourism landscape. Lastly, this research addresses an existing gap in understanding the variables influencing culinary destination loyalty (CDL), emphasizing that satisfying culinary experiences can lead to repeat visits and foster loyal tourists, which is crucial for sustainable tourism development (Huete-Alcocer and Hernandez-Rojas, 2022; Li and Qiu, 2023).

The significance of DPF in culinary tourism activities is at the core of this specialized but constantly developing segment of the tourist business (Kalpidis et al., 2023; Recuero-Virto and Arróspide, 2024; Thio et al., 2022). DPF creates the desire to explore and experience new and unique gastronomic experiences, which is essential for sustaining and enhancing the market for culinary tourism (Davras and Özperçin, 2023; Luong, 2024). This study posits that DPF not only influences tourists’ destination choices but also fosters a deeper engagement with the culinary cultures encountered during their travels, thereby enriching the existing literature by highlighting the multifaceted role of DPF in culinary tourism. Moreover, prior research has established that DPF positively affects key dimensions such as destination image (Pereira et al., 2022), experiences (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019), and loyalty (Luong, 2023a), strengthening the connection between tourists and destinations. This study contributes to the original discourse by addressing the gap concerning how motivated culinary travelers are likely to spend more and engage in various culinary activities, ultimately benefiting host destinations’ economies (Levitt et al., 2019; Sutiadiningsih et al., 2023).

CDI and CEX hold important roles in the broader framework of culinary tourism, which is part and parcel of what shapes a traveler’s decision-making and post-visit perceptions (Kalpidis et al., 2023; Liang and Lai, 2023). A positive CDI is a potent attractor, crafting an appealing narrative about the destination’s gastronomic offerings that can draw tourists primarily (Khoshkam et al., 2023). A well-established image that accurately captures and promotes the unique culinary characteristics of the destination enhances expectations and piques the interest of potential visitors, which is beneficial for both marketing and consumer satisfaction strategies (Hashemi et al., 2023; Li and Qiu, 2023). Additionally, the level of CEX that individuals experience directly impacts their willingness to revisit or recommend a particular place (Luong, 2023a; Yasami et al., 2020). When the CEX leads to high satisfaction, it fosters loyalty, manifested in tourists’ repeat patronage and powerful word-of-mouth promotion (Anton Martin et al., 2021; Luong, 2023a). This study contributes original insights to the existing literature by elucidating the intrinsic links between CDI and CEX within the Vietnamese context, thus addressing a notable gap in understanding how these dimensions interact to influence sustainable success and profitability in culinary tourism.

In addition, culinary involvement (CIN) moderation testing is required to comprehend the detailed nature of how food engagement affects the connections of DPF, CDI, CEX, and CDL. CIN suggests the tourists’ level of interest and participation in the destination’s food culture, which could deeply affect how they perceive and interact with other aspects of their journey (Hashemi et al., 2023; Moreo et al., 2022). As a moderating variable, CIN could potentially intensify or diminish the relationships between travelers’ motivations to encounter new CEX, their image of a place’s food culture, satisfaction with those experiences, and loyalty (Moreo et al., 2022; Su et al., 2020). For instance, highly involved culinary tourists may perceive a destination’s image more favorably and derive more satisfaction from their experiences, leading to stronger loyalty behaviors (Kim and Huang, 2021; Rousta and Jamshidi, 2020). This paper enriches the existing literature by addressing the gap concerning the moderating role of CIN within the culinary tourism context, offering valuable insights that marketers and destination managers can utilize to effectively tailor their offerings and communications. By enhancing visitor involvement through targeted strategies, destinations can better position themselves in the competitive culinary tourism market, driving repeat patronage and supporting sustainable tourism growth.

In addition, this study adopts the Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) theory Mehrabian & Russell, 1974) as a framework to explore the intricate dynamics of culinary tourism. The SOR framework is particularly suitable for this research as it facilitates understanding how various stimuli, in this case, DPF, influence CDI and CEX (the organism) of tourists’ perception, ultimately guiding their responses, such as loyalty behaviors (the response). Using this theory, incorporating qualitative research enriches this analysis by providing a more nuanced understanding of culinary tourism. The qualitative findings complement the quantitative results, offering an overview of culinary tourism and deepening the understanding of how cultural background and culinary expertise influence visitors’ culinary experiences and loyalty. By integrating SOR theory with qualitative insights, this study delivers a comprehensive framework that advances scholarly discourse on culinary tourism and provides actionable implications for stakeholders in the field.

This research seeks to enhance the current knowledge of culinary tourism by investigating the influence of CIN as a moderating factor in the connections between DPF, CDI, CEX, and CDL, adapting SOR theory as the conceptual framework for this study. Additionally, qualitative insights gathered from in-depth interviews enrich the analysis. This qualitative component not only complements the quantitative findings but also provides a deeper understanding of how cultural heritage and gastronomic passions contribute to tourists’ perceptions and interactions with culinary offerings. Specifically, the study examines these dynamics in the context of a culinary destination: Ha Noi, the capital city of Vietnam, known for its rich culinary heritage. This study enhances the existing body of knowledge regarding the determinants that impact the decisions and actions of culinary tourists. Additionally, it offers destination marketers and managers valuable insights that can be utilized to customize their approaches, thereby improving the experiences of culinary tourists, cultivating increased loyalty, and promoting sustainable tourism development in the region.

Literature review and hypotheses development

The Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) theory

External stimuli (S) induce internal organismic processes (O) to generate a response (R), according to the SOR theory (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). This theoretical framework is particularly relevant to culinary tourism, providing a structured approach to understanding how various environmental factors influence tourists’ perceptions and behaviors. The SOR theory is adapted in multiple contexts, such as brand love for nature products (Kumar et al., 2021), green skincare consumption (Testa et al., 2024), social commerce intention (Bu et al., 2025; Tuncer, 2021), and film tourism (Luong, 2023b). For instance, a recent study adapted the SOR theory to investigate the impact of destination live streams on tourists’ travel decisions (Bu et al., 2025), demonstrating its versatility in different tourism research aspects.

In culinary tourism, food quality, ambiance, and service quality are key stimuli shaping tourists’ experiences (Molina-Collado et al., 2024; Sultan et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2024). Specifically, in this study, DPF sets the stage for how tourists perceive a destination’s culinary offerings. At the same time, CIN reflects the tourists’ level of engagement and interest in the local food culture. Both stimuli are crucial in shaping the organism’s internal processes, which in this context include CDI and CEX. CDI contributes to how tourists view the culinary aspects of a destination, while CEX encompasses their emotional and cognitive appraisals of their gastronomic encounters (Chen et al., 2023; Jiang et al., 2023; Silaban et al., 2023; Sutiadiningsih et al., 2023).

The SOR framework effectively elucidates how both CDI and CEX subsequently affect CDL, thereby capturing the complex dynamics at play (Chi et al., 2022). In addition, factors such as cultural background and culinary expertise, uncovered during the qualitative phase of this research, act as additional stimuli influencing these internal processes. Furthermore, economic variables, such as a destination’s affordability or the travelers’ financial status, can significantly alter perceptions of value in culinary offerings (Sultan et al., 2021; Wondirad et al., 2021). Social influences, including peer recommendations and culinary trends, shape tourists’ expectations and experiences (Galati et al., 2023; Kumar et al., 2021). Furthermore, the impact of media, such as social media representation and food blogging, can prime tourists’ perceptions well before they arrive at a destination (Chi et al., 2022; Huete-Alcocer and Hernandez-Rojas, 2022). By integrating the SOR theory into this analysis, the study presents a comprehensive framework for understanding the interconnected relationships among external stimuli, internal cognitive and emotional processes, and the resulting tourist responses in the context of culinary tourism (Chi et al., 2022; Yasami et al., 2020).

Destination pull factors (DPF)

What drives travelers to travel is a starting point for understanding the travel phenomenon; nevertheless, little empirical research has critically explored culinary tourism (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Klarin et al., 2023). Using regional cuisine for branding and marketing improves tourist experiences while promoting regions’ identity (Recuero-Virto and Arróspide, 2024). Numerous areas, including Hong Kong (Choe and Kim, 2018), Macau (Hsu and Scott, 2020), Italian (Galati et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2018), and Malaysia (Hashemi et al., 2023), have demonstrated the implication of culinary art as a DFF. Similar intense motivations are observed in individuals deeply passionate about gastronomy and exploration. The primary impetus for such travel should be the aspiration to sample a specific cuisine, regional produce, or even the creations of a particular chef (Galati et al., 2023; Kalpidis et al., 2023).

DPF as motives encompasses both the aspirations of travelers and the qualities of the destination that influence an individual’s decision to embark on a journey (Davras and Özperçin, 2023; Pereira et al., 2022; Recuero-Virto and Arróspide, 2024). Local cuisine influences the image of a World Heritage destination and subsequent loyalty to that destination (Huete-Alcocer and Hernandez-Rojas, 2022). Travel motives impact return visitors’ intentions to return to a specific location (Kalpidis et al., 2023; Luong, 2024). Numerous scholars have studied the impact of motives on traveler consumption experiences. Previous studies have shown that various motivational aspects affect experiences (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Luong, 2023c; Su et al., 2020). Motivational factors are logically valuable to destinations, companies, and researchers, as demonstrated by their association with the tourist experience and, therefore, with consumer loyalty (Luong, 2024; Su et al., 2020). Thus, the following hypotheses are developed:

Hypothesis 1: DPF has a positive effect on CDI.

Hypothesis 2: DPF has a positive effect on CEX.

Hypothesis 3: DPF has a positive effect on CDL.

Culinary destination image (CDI)

The research already published has widely acknowledged the importance of destination image in shaping a person’s perspective, destination choice, and conduct (Luong, 2023a; Sutiadiningsih et al., 2023). Functional images of an agrifood product can be transferred to a place, generating a tourist’s desire to visit a place (Liu et al., 2023). From a tourism context, a culinary destination is a place that is known for its restaurants, food, and drinks (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Putra et al., 2023). Images of culinary destinations typically feature beautiful food, restaurants, and cultural attractions that appeal to travelers alike (Kalpidis et al., 2023; Khoshkam et al., 2023; Luong and Ho, 2023). This study provides the CDI with food-quality images and food-tourism images (Davras and Özperçin, 2023; Yang et al., 2020).

The impact of CDI on visitors’ decision-making processes has been the subject of one line of inquiry (Kalpidis et al., 2023; Luong, 2023c). For instance, the effect of food images on tourists’ desire and intention to consume destination food in Macau (Zhang et al., 2023). The image of the destination significantly influences the inclination of visitors to recommend and return to a culinary destination (Davras and Özperçin, 2023; Yang et al., 2020). Tourists who perceive a culinary destination as positive are more inclined to have a pleasant experience during their stay and, consequently, are more likely to recommend the location through positive word-of-mouth (Anton Martin et al., 2021; Hashemi et al., 2023). Traditional food images from Southeast Asian countries are crucial for promoting gastronomic tourism through platforms like Instagram, influencing visitor perceptions and engagement (Putra et al., 2023). The interplay of motivation, experience, satisfaction, and loyalty in culinary tourism, particularly in cooking classes, reveals a positive correlation among these factors and highlights their importance in shaping destination loyalty strategies (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019). Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 4: CDI has a positive effect on CEX.

Hypothesis 5: CDI has a positive effect on CDL.

Culinary experiences (CEX)

CEX tourism is a form of travel in which investigating and partaking in local gastronomy is fundamental (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Anton Martin et al., 2021; García-Pérez and Castillo-Ortiz, 2024; Yasami et al., 2020). Stone et al. (2022) only focus on identifying why food experiences are especially memorable, overlooking ideas for tourist behavioral intention thereafter. Thus, as more people want to experience different countries and learn more about the way of life in other places, this way of traveling is becoming more common (Galati et al., 2023; Sutiadiningsih et al., 2023). In addition, it is typical for CEX tourism to involve additional pursuits, including participation in food and wine festivals, attendance at cuisine demonstrations, and education regarding the cultural significance of food (Choe and Kim, 2018; Hashemi et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2024). Prior studies have shown that visitors who express experiences using destination services and other tourist resources are more inclined to return and share positive experiences with their connections (Huete-Alcocer and Hernandez-Rojas, 2022; Luong, 2023c). Thus, the following hypothesis is developed:

Hypothesis 6: CEX has a positive effect on CDL.

Culinary destination loyalty (CDL)

Oliver (1999) defines loyalty as consumers’ profound dedication or intention to consistently purchase or engage in brand-related activities with a particular service, product, or brand set, notwithstanding any marketing or situational influences (Huete-Alcocer and Hernandez-Rojas, 2022; Liang and Lai, 2023). The previous study provides evidence from Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia, showcasing culinary tourism as a regional economic development and socio-cultural revitalization (Wondirad et al., 2021). Thus, CDL pertains to travelers’ sentimentality or inclination towards specific dining establishments or destinations during their quests. Geographical regions renowned for their distinctive, premium, and varied gastronomy are culinary destinations within the tourism industry (Knollenberg et al., 2021; Liang and Lai, 2023). The ambiance, the cuisine and service quality, the overall experience, and other variables may influence this loyalty (Kalpidis et al., 2023; Knollenberg et al., 2021).

However, it is imperative to investigate mediating factors between DPF and CDL (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Pereira et al., 2022). Consequently, this study investigated the roles of CDI and CEX. Researchers have examined how destination image affects people’s desire and plans to act about food events (Davras and Özperçin, 2023). Furthermore, the destination food image influences the desire to travel to the country and the intention to eat local cuisine, mediating these two variables (Aybek and Özdemir, 2022). The destination image also bridges the brand image of the starting destination and tourists’ plans to go there (Liang and Lai, 2023). Conversely, Luong (2023a, 2023c) discovered that the correlation mediated experiences between destination image and Vietnamese tourist loyalty. In particular, the relationship between visitors’ motivation and loyalty is mediated by experiences (Su et al., 2020; Yasami et al., 2020). Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 7: CDI mediates the relationship between DPF and CDL.

Hypothesis 8: CEX mediates the relationship between DPF and CDL

Culinary involvement (CIN)

CIN is a characteristic that distinguishes genuine food devotees whose daily lives are significantly impacted by gastronomy in food-related contexts (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Levitt et al., 2019). Individuals exhibiting significant degrees of food engagement often have an innate love for authentic, high-end cuisine (Su et al., 2020). Furthermore, food involvement also impacts place attachment and destination loyalty (Chen et al., 2023). When visiting a certain place, they actively look for food-related activities (Moreo et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2020). An increasing degree of food participation is connected with a more thorough understanding of the intricacies between diverse food components and the growth of culinary skills (Brunsø et al., 2021; Hashemi et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2020). Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Hypothesis 9: CIN has a positive effect on CDL.

It was discovered that the involvement construct varies across contexts (Gu et al., 2020; Kim and Huang, 2021; Yang et al., 2020). For example, involvement can be deduced that the impact of destination image on visitor loyalty will be more pronounced among those who are exceptionally engaged, while not invariably so for those who are less engaged (Yang et al., 2020). Stated differently, travelers with a strong inclination for indigenous gourmet food are likely to get favorable signals about the culinary reputation of a place. Their heightened engagement might lead to individuals being more devoted to the location of their culinary tourism encounter (Hashemi et al., 2023; Rousta and Jamshidi, 2020). Gu et al. (2020) found that involvement reduced the impact of originators and limitations on the wine tourism experience based on research involving Chinese wine tourists traveling abroad. Furthermore, regarding travelers’ intention to eat at a restaurant, S. H. Kim and Huang (2021) discovered that involvement in local culinary activities moderates the association between locavorism and authenticity. As a result, these hypotheses are formulated:

Hypothesis 10: CIN moderates the relationship between DPF and CDL.

Hypothesis 11: CIN moderates the relationship between CDI and CDL.

Hypothesis 12: CIN moderates the relationship between CEX and CDL.

In addition, CIN has been recognized as a significant factor influencing destination loyalty in culinary tourism (Hashemi et al., 2023; Su et al., 2020). As tourists engage more deeply with a destination’s gastronomic offerings, their overall satisfaction and likelihood of returning increase. Furthermore, differences in lifestyle and food culture among travelers contribute to varying levels of culinary involvement (Chen et al., 2023; Luong and Long, 2025). While CIN plays a pivotal role in shaping CDL, it is essential to consider additional factors that may influence tourist experiences and commitments, as well as their impact on the relationships among DPF, CDI, CEX, and CDL. Recent studies underscore the importance of cultural dimensions, such as local traditions and heritage, in enhancing tourists’ engagement with culinary experiences (Huete-Alcocer and Hernandez-Rojas, 2022; Recuero-Virto and Arróspide, 2024). Personal experiences also significantly shape travelers’ perceptions of and connections to food culture, further influencing their loyalty to culinary destinations (García-Pérez and Castillo-Ortiz, 2024; Stone et al., 2022). This study incorporated two dimensions (cultural background and personal experiences) in the qualitative stage to explore whether they influence tourist involvement and CDL. The flowchart of the research design (consisting of two studies) and data analysis process are presented in Figure 1, and the conceptual framework is displayed in Figure 2.

Methodology

Study 1: Visitor survey

Ha Noi as a culinary destination

Hanoi stands out as a preeminent culinary destination in Vietnam, renowned for its rich and diverse gastronomic landscape that features an extensive selection of local dishes (Figure 3). The city boasts a vibrant street food culture, with numerous markets and alleyways offering specialty dishes that reflect the unique culinary heritage of the region. Popular areas such as Hoan Kiem Lake and the Old Quarter serve as focal points for culinary exploration, providing tourists with easy access to various dining experiences. Choosing Hanoi as the sample location for this study is justified by its status as the heart of culinary tourism in Vietnam. This city attracts visitors eager to experience its famous cuisine, making it an ideal context for this study. The diverse food offerings, combined with its rich cultural heritage, allow for an exploration of how various factors influence culinary tourist behaviors.

Furthermore, the findings from this study are generalizable to other regions with similar culinary attributes, particularly those within Southeast Asia, where street food and rich culinary traditions play a significant role in attracting tourists (Luong and Ho, 2023; Putra et al., 2023). Destinations with exciting food markets, a blend of traditional and modern culinary practices, and a cultural emphasis on food will likely exhibit similar tourist involvement and loyalty dynamics. Thus, insights from the Hanoi context can inform marketing strategies and tourism development in comparable destinations worldwide, enhancing the understanding of culinary tourism.

Measurements

Each research variable was measured with an already established scale. The destination pull factors (DPF) variable (6 items) was modified from previous studies (Galati et al., 2023; Su et al., 2020). The culinary destination image (CDI) variable (12 items), including two sub-dimensions, food-quality image (6 items) and food-tourism image (6 items), was adapted and modified from previous research (Yang et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2023). The culinary experiences (CEX) variable (5 items) was revised from previous research (Yasami et al., 2020). The culinary involvement (CIN) variable (5 items) was modified from previous research (Yang et al., 2020). The culinary destination loyalty (CDL) variable (5 items) was taken and modified from previous studies (Luong, 2023a; Yasami et al., 2020). Every item was changed to fit the requirements of the investigation. Furthermore, all items were evaluated using a consistent five-point Likert scale across the board.

In addressing language translation challenges in questionnaire design, a detailed discussion explains how experts in tourism and hospitality research ensured accurate concept measurement. The questionnaire underwent meticulous review by three experts and was translated into Vietnamese to suit the local context. Adding two new items and removing others in the CEX scale, such as “the local cuisine of Ha Noi enhanced my overall travel experience” and “exploring the local food scene in Ha Noi was a trip highlight,” was carefully deliberated. During the revision process, the item “DPF4-Prestige motivations” was removed. This transparent approach sheds light on the refinement of the measurement tool.

Data collection

This study examines Ha Noi’s food consumption and tourist behavior. The study population was domestic tourists who had eaten food in Ha Noi for 5 years. For this research, data collection involved utilizing an online survey on popular social media platforms, including Zalo and Facebook. The online surveys were promoted across multiple social media channels and targeted diverse groups to enhance representation. The online survey included two criterion-based questions to aid in selecting study participants. These yes/no questions aimed to find persons who could have previously experienced Ha Noi foods. The two formats used to assess criteria are as follows:

1. Have you traveled to Ha Noi for the past 5 years? (yes/no)

2. Have you tried Ha Noi local food for the past 5 years? (yes/no)

Only those who replied “yes” to these criteria-based requests could complete the subsequent surveys. Participants were anonymous in the online survey. Respondents were informed of the study’s goal and rights. While efficient in reaching a targeted audience, this approach introduces potential biases associated with online surveys, such as self-selection and non-response biases, which may impact the representativeness of the results. Those who are more active on social media may have different culinary experiences or preferences compared to those who are less engaged.

The decision to focus on domestic tourists was motivated by a desire to understand local perceptions and experiences of Hanoi’s cuisine. Domestic tourists offer unique insights shaped by cultural factors, familiarity, and personal connections to local foods, which are crucial for assessing the authenticity and appeal of Ha Noi’s culinary offerings. Their motivations for culinary involvement are influenced by attractive experiences (Sthapit et al., 2023; Sutiadiningsih et al., 2023; Thio et al., 2022), providing valuable information for local stakeholders to enhance culinary tourism strategies. However, including international tourists in future research could yield insights into Hanoi’s culinary reputation on a global scale, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of the city as a culinary destination.

Data analysis

The collected data from 670 respondents were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to evaluate the proposed research model (Hair et al., 2019). PLS-SEM was chosen for its suitability in examining complex relationships among multiple variables (Hair et al., 2019). Additionally, PLS-SEM allows for the simultaneous analysis of reflective constructs, making it particularly advantageous for studies in the tourism and hospitality sector where such constructs are presented in this study (Hair et al., 2019; Luong and Long, 2025).

To ensure the appropriateness of the sample size for PLS analysis, subjective evaluation and the 5- or 10-times rule were applied. This guideline suggests that the sample size should be at least 5 to 10 times the number of analyzed items (Hair et al., 2019). In this study, the 33-item scales matched the 10-times approach assumptions, resulting in a sample size deemed sufficient for robust analysis. By employing PLS-SEM, this research not only enhances the understanding of the relationships among variables but also provides a strong statistical foundation for the findings, contributing to the validity and reliability of the results presented.

Study 2: visitor interview

Data collection

Study 2 complements Study 1 by exploring factors beyond CIN, such as cultural background and culinary expertise, that may directly or indirectly impact tourists’ CDL. The study recruited Vietnamese tourists who had visited Ha Noi to achieve this objective. The duration of interviews with tourists varied from 40 minutes to one hour, depending on the participants’ interest in providing detailed information. The interview questions focused on exploring two main themes: cultural background and culinary expertise. These questions include: “Can you describe how your cultural background influences your food preferences and travel choices? How does experiencing local cuisine contribute to your overall travel experience and cultural immersion? How would you describe your interest and expertise in food and culinary experiences? How does your knowledge and appreciation of food impact your decision-making process when choosing culinary destinations?”

Participants were selected based on a criterion requiring having visited Ha Noi capital before. Due to time constraints, flexible online interviews were arranged. A snowball sampling method facilitated the recruitment process. All interviewees received information sheets and consent forms. Participants were informed about voluntary participation and the right to decline questions or withdraw responses before the assigned date. Responses were kept anonymous and confidential through encryption during the coding process.

Data analysis

The interviews conducted in Vietnamese were transcribed and back-translated into English for linguistic consistency. To avoid losing nuances and meanings during the translation process, bilingual native speakers were consulted to validate the accuracy of the translated data. Additionally, researchers cross-verified the results from the coded transcripts and the coding procedures to enhance the coherence and reliability of the data analysis. Data collection with 15 Vietnamese tourists after the initial analysis. Thematic analysis identified emerging themes of tourists in the context of Ha Noi cuisine. This study adopted the thematic analysis method suggested by Braun and Clarke (2022) with 6 key phases, including (1) acquiring familiarity with the data, (2) developing coding categories, (3) identifying themes, (4) reviewing and refining themes, (5) defining and labeling the identified themes, and (6) identifying exemplars to support the identified themes.

Results

Study 1: Quantitative results

Participants’ characteristic

The participants’ information is displayed in Table 1. The highest frequencies were observed in the following categories: female with 381 responses accounting for 56.87%; single with 431 responses representing 64.33%; 30-39 years old with 267 responses making up 39.85%; undergraduate with 543 responses accounting for 81.04%; and 10,000,000-15,000,000 VND (monthly income) with 293 responses representing 43.73% of the total.

Table 1.

Respondents’ information.

Variable	Responses	Frequency	Percent
Gender	Male	289	43.13
Gender	Female	381	56.87
Marital status	Married	239	35.67
Marital status	Single	431	64.33
Age (year)	18-29	216	32.24
	30-39	267	39.85
	40-49	187	27.91
Education	High school	52	7.76
	Undergraduate	543	81.04
	Postgraduate	75	11.19
Monthly income	Under 10.000.000VND	166	24.78
Exchange rate	10.000.000-15.000.000VND	293	43.73
1 USD = 25.080 VND	15.000.000-20.000.000VND	169	25.22
Updated: 24/02/2025	Higher 20.000.000VND	42	6.27

Normality and common method bias test

For normal univariate distribution, any skewness and kurtosis values between −3 and +3 (Table 3) are satisfactory (Hair et al., 2019) for normal univariate distribution. The current model is unrestricted of common method bias (Jakobsen and Jensen, 2015), with a maximum VIF inner of 2.897 (Table 2). Furthermore, all the VIFs (outer model) under 5 (Table 3) show that the research did not suffer from collinearity (Hair et al., 2019).

Table 2.

Collinearity statistics (VIF) – Inner model.

Paths	VIF (inner model)
Culinary destination image -> Culinary destination loyalty	2.897
Culinary destination image -> Culinary experiences	1.695
Culinary involvement -> Culinary destination loyalty	1.958
Culinary experiences -> Culinary destination loyalty	2.588
Destination pull factors -> Culinary destination image	1.000
Destination pull factors -> Culinary destination loyalty	2.046
Destination pull factors -> Culinary experiences	1.695

Table 3.

Constructs, items, VIF, factor loadings, validity, and reliability.

Latent variable/items*	Excess kurtosis	Skewness	VIF (outer model)	Factor loading	Cronbach’s alpha	CR	AVE
Destination pull factors (DPF)					0.766	0.782	0.512
DPF1	Ha noi is known for its associated health benefits, attracting visitors interested in well-being	−0.166	−0.493	1.266	0.679
DPF2	The cultural attractions of Ha noi appeal to tourists seeking enriching experiences	0.336	−0.892	1.357	0.610
DPF3	Environmental considerations are significant in Ha noi, appealing to environmentally conscious travelers	0.224	−0.630	2.146	0.791
DPF5	Ha noi offers captivating sensory experiences for visitors seeking rich stimuli	0.454	−0.853	2.136	0.779
DPF6	Social sustainability motivates travelers to choose Ha noi, highlighting the city’s focus on social impact	0.251	−0.740	1.702	0.684
Food-quality image (FQI)					0.817	0.823	0.523
FQI1	Offers variety of foods	0.566	−0.690	1.934	0.767
FQI2	Offers good quality of food	−0.589	−0.363	1.941	0.722
FQI3	Offers regionally produced food products	0.510	−0.868	1.725	0.742
FQI4	Offers attractive food presentation	1.779	−1.382	1.539	0.640
FQI5	Offers exotic cooking methods	2.915	−1.643	2.078	0.715
FQI6	Offers delicious food	2.002	−1.427	2.033	0.745
Food-tourism image (FTI)					0.877	0.878	0.620
FTI1	Offers food and wine regions	−0.480	−0.352	2.205	0.770
FTI2	Offers package tours related to food and wine	−0.402	−0.509	2.294	0.767
FTI3	Offers unique cultural experience	0.474	−0.883	2.694	0.813
FTI4	Offers opportunity to visit street market	−0.035	−0.631	2.140	0.791
FTI5	Offers unique street food vendors	0.061	−0.626	2.723	0.822
FTI6	Offers various food activities	−0.042	−0.527	1.878	0.760
Culinary experiences (CEX)					0.824	0.825	0.590
CEX1	Ha noi food contributed to the quality of my visiting experience	0.449	−0.897	1.468	0.706
CEX2	Ha noi food contributed to my eating pleasure	−0.110	−0.526	1.904	0.791
CEX3	Eating Ha noi food added to my visiting enjoyment	0.176	−0.669	2.099	0.821
CEX4	The food experience in Ha noi met my expectations	0.150	−0.687	1.960	0.817
CEX5	I experienced the culture through Ha noi food	−0.381	−0.521	1.375	0.697
Culinary involvement (CIN)					0.799	0.807	0.553
CIN1	I enjoy exploring local cuisine and trying dishes unique to the region	−0.390	−0.469	1.734	0.714
CIN2	Supporting local farmers and food producers is important to me	−0.143	−0.496	1.769	0.725
CIN3	I make an effort to discover and visit local food establishments when I travel	−0.266	−0.379	1.858	0.784
CIN4	I prioritize purchasing organic and sustainably sourced food products	−0.009	−0.543	1.743	0.744
CIN5	I actively seek out food events and culinary experiences in my community	0.084	−0.761	1.432	0.750
Culinary destination loyalty (CDL)					0.862	0.865	0.650
CDL1	I will recommend Ha noi food to my friends and family	0.418	−0.832	1.359	0.675
CDL2	I have a good impression of Ha noi food	−0.040	−0.666	1.896	0.794
CDL3	I strongly remember my food experience in Ha noi	−0.028	−0.576	2.281	0.846
CDL4	I will revisit Ha noi for food	−0.446	−0.425	2.509	0.860
CDL5	Based on my eating-out experience while visiting Ha noi, I would rate Ha noi as a gastronomy destination	−0.410	−0.394	2.268	0.839
Culinary destination image (CDI)					0.869	0.881	0.484
FQI	Food-quality image	0.770
FTI	Food-tourism image	0.914

Note: CR: Composite Reliability; AVE: Average Variance Extracted; VIF: Variance Inflation Factor.

Reliability and validity analysis

CR and Cronbach’s alpha values surpassing 0.7, factor loading values of items surpassing 0.6, and AVE values exceeding 0.5 all attest to the acceptability of the reliability of all constructs and items in this study (Hair et al., 2006, 2019) (Table 3). Furthermore, Antoniadis et al. (2022) identified that “the HTMT is under 0.85 or at least under 0.95, discriminant validity is established” (p. 8). Furthermore, the results also showed that the inter-construct correlations were less than the square root of the AVE scores (Table 4). Thus, the discriminant validity of the model was recognized.

Table 4.

Discriminant validity.

Fornell-Larcker criterion
Fornell-Larcker criterion	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
Culinary destination loyalty (1)	0.806
Culinary experiences (2)	0.681	0.768
Culinary involvement (3)	0.539	0.578	0.744
Destination pull factors (4)	0.659	0.674	0.473	0.716
Food-quality image (5)	0.432	0.481	0.632	0.376	0.723
Food-tourism image (6)	0.611	0.696	0.541	0.654	0.446	0.788
Heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT)
Culinary destination loyalty (1)
Culinary experiences (2)	0.927
Culinary involvement (3)	0.638	0.697
Destination pull factors (4)	0.774	0.822	0.566
Food-quality image (5)	0.515	0.592	0.789	0.455
Food-tourism image (6)	0.932	0.817	0.639	0.755	0.517

Accordingly, CDI was classified as a second-order construct with two subcomponents, FQI and FTI (Table 5). With a value of 0.484, the AVE of the construct is less than 0.5. Nevertheless, the factor loadings, Cronbach alpha, and CR values for its first-order constructs are accepted (Hair et al., 2019) (Table 3). Thus, the construct remains acceptable (Aybek and Özdemir, 2022).

Table 5.

SEM results.

Hypothesis/Paths		Original sample	Standard deviation	t-value	p-value	Decision
Direct effects
H1	Destination pull factors -> Culinary destination image	0.640	0.023	27,379	0.000	Accepted
H2	Destination pull factors -> Culinary experiences	0.362	0.034	10,573	0.000	Accepted
H3	Destination pull factors -> Culinary destination loyalty	0.123	0.035	3,491	0.000	Accepted
H4	Culinary destination image -> Culinary experiences	0.486	0.033	14,862	0.000	Accepted
H5	Culinary destination image -> Culinary destination loyalty	0.430	0.041	10,492	0.000	Accepted
H6	Culinary experiences -> Culinary destination loyalty	0.413	0.040	10,412	0.000	Accepted
Indirect effects
H7	Destination pull factors -> Culinary destination image -> Culinary destination loyalty	0.275	0.030	9,282	0.000	Accepted
H8	Destination pull factors -> Culinary experiences -> Culinary destination loyalty	0.150	0.020	7,402	0.000	Accepted
H9	Culinary involvement -> Culinary destination loyalty	−0.044	0.030	1,461	0.144	Not accepted
H10	Culinary involvement x Destination pull factors -> Culinary destination loyalty	0.002	0.034	0.048	0.961	Not accepted
H11	Culinary involvement x culinary destination image -> Culinary destination loyalty	−0.001	0.035	0.024	0.981	Not accepted
H12	Culinary involvement x culinary experiences -> Culinary destination loyalty	0.089	0.041	2,183	0.029	Accepted

Predictive capability

Firstly, the results presented a 41.0% variance in CDI, 59.4% in CEX, and 72.6% in CDL, explained by model constructs (Hair et al., 2019). Secondly, the results indicated that all Q² values (CDI-0.163, CEX-0.344, and CDL-0.461) in this study are positive, thus having a predictive significance (Hair et al., 2019).

Hypothesis results

Bootstrapping analysis (5,000 samples) was conducted to test the hypotheses. The study’s results are presented in Table 5 and Figure 2. In direct effects, the results indicated that DPF positively impacts CDI (H1: β = 0.640, t = 27.379, p < .001), CEX (H2: β = 0.362, t = 10.573, p < .001), and CDL (H3: β = 0.123, t = 3.491, p < .001). CDI positively affects CEX (H4: β = 0.486, t = 14.862, p < .001) and CDL (H5: β = 0.430, t = 10.492, p < .001). CEX positively impacts CDL (H6: β = 0.413, t = 10.412, p < .001). However, CIN does not affect CDL (H9: β = −0.044, t = 1.461, p = .144).

In the indirect effects, the findings suggest that CDI mediates the relationship between DPF and CDL (H7: β = 0.275, t = 9.282, p < .001) and CEX (H8: β = 0.150, t = 7.402, p < .001). Furthermore, CIN does not moderate the associations between DPF and CDL (H10: β = 0.002, t = 0.048, p = .961) or between CDI and CDL (H11: β = −0.001, t = 0.024, p = .981). Conversely, CIN moderates the relationship between CEX and CDL (H12: β = 0.089, t = 2.183, p = .029).

Study 2: Qualitative results

Out of the 15 Vietnamese tourists for interview, 7 were male, and 8 were female. All interviewees come from various occupations, ages 23 to 45 (Table 6). The study’s findings highlighted two main themes and five key dimensions: cultural background (three dimensions: food enthusiasts and cultural ambassadors; cultural heritage influence on culinary exploration; and culinary traditions as cultural connectors in travel experiences); culinary expertise (two dimensions: professional culinary expertise; and culinary exploration and education).

Table 6.

Interview participant information.

Code	Gender	Age	Occupation
PT001	Male	28	Food blogger
PT002	Female	35	Chef
PT003	Female	23	Student
PT004	Female	40	Tour guide
PT005	Male	31	Bank officer
PT006	Male	24	Entrepreneur
PT007	Female	45	Homemaker
PT008	Male	29	Travel enthusiast
PT009	Male	33	Own business
PT010	Female	38	Office worker
PT011	Female	26	Banker
PT012	Male	32	Office worker
PT013	Female	34	Food enthusiast
PT014	Female	30	Restaurant manager
PT015	Male	36	Street food vendor

Food enthusiasts and cultural ambassadors

Individuals are food enthusiasts and cultural ambassadors. They are passionate about exploring different cuisines and flavors and showcasing Hanoi’s culinary treasures to wider audiences. Their discerning palates and culinary knowledge enable them to engage meaningfully with Hanoi’s food culture, sharing unique culinary experiences with followers and highlighting the city’s diverse gastronomic landscape.

As noted by one respondent, “As a food enthusiast, my passion for exploring different cuisines and flavors has honed my expertise in the realm of food. I take pleasure in delving into the intricacies of Hanoi's culinary offerings, from street food gems to hidden restaurant treasures. My knowledge of ingredients, cooking techniques, and flavor profiles allows me to appreciate and savor each dish, enriching my culinary experiences and broadening my gastronomic horizons.” (PT013)

Additionally, as another participant highlighted, “As a person loving traveling and local culinary, my expertise lies in exploring and showcasing Hanoi's culinary treasures. My culinary knowledge allows me to engage with Hanoi's food culture meaningfully, sharing unique culinary experiences with my followers and highlighting the city's diverse gastronomic landscape.” (PT011)

Cultural heritage influence on culinary exploration

Travelers whose culinary journey is profoundly influenced by their cultural backgrounds and heritage play a pivotal role in shaping their food preferences while exploring new destinations. Rooted in a rich culinary heritage from Hanoi, these travelers are drawn to traditional Vietnamese dishes like Pho, Banh Mi, Cha Ca La Vong, Bun Thang, Nem Cua Be, and others. These flavors suggest memories of home and reflect their cultural identity, bridging them to their roots while discovering new culinary experiences in different destinations.

One participant stated, “As a food blogger immersed in Hanoi's culinary tapestry, my exploration of Vietnamese heritage through dishes like Pho and Bun Cha has been a journey of flavors that reflect the heart of our capital city. Each recipe I share on my blog celebrates the traditional dishes that define Hanoi's culinary landscape and serves as a tribute to the local artisans who have preserved these recipes for generations.” (PT001)

In addition, as outlined by another participant, “In the busy streets of Hanoi, among the rush of daily life. From the steaming bowls of Bun Thang to the crispy Banh tom Ha Tay, each dish carries the spirit of Hanoi's vibrant food culture. Hanoi's culinary heritage is more than just a collection of recipes; it is a testament to the resilience, creativity, and community that shape our identity.” (PT005)

Moreover, as remarked by another participant, “As a food enthusiast exploring Hanoi's culinary scene, every meal is a journey through the city's rich tapestry of flavors and traditions. From the vibrant street food stalls to the cozy family-owned restaurants, Hanoi's food culture offers a treasure trove of culinary delights waiting to be discovered.” (PT008)

Culinary traditions as cultural connectors in travel experiences

Travelers whose Vietnamese heritage deeply influences their culinary preferences and choices contribute to a sense of cultural pride and connection during their travels. As they explore new destinations, these culinary traditions act as cultural connectors. Through their culinary experiences, these travelers build a bond with the destinations they visit, enhancing their culinary destination loyalty and overall travel satisfaction.

One interviewee said, “I see Hanoi's food as a cultural ambassador welcoming travelers. From the intricate flavors of Bun Cha La Vong to the aromatic spices of Pho, each dish offers a glimpse into our traditions and values. Through sharing meals with visitors, the destination creates moments of connection and understanding, allowing every person to experience Hanoi's warmth and hospitality through its diverse culinary offerings.” (PT007)

As specified by another participant, “Dishes like Banh Mi and Bun Bo serve as gateways to understanding the city's traditions and values. Through culinary experiences, visitors can delve into the essence of Hanoi's identity, forging meaningful connections with the local culture and community that enrich their travel experiences.” (PT009)

Additionally, as pointed out by another participant, “As a street food vendor in my hometown, I have seen how food acts as a universal language that connects people from all walks of life. Through street food experiences, visitors satisfy their appetites and immerse themselves in the flavors, aromas, and stories that make Hanoi a culinary gem worth exploring.” (PT014)

Professional culinary expertise

Who have careers directly related to the culinary field. They leverage their flavors, cooking techniques, and ingredients expertise to explore and appreciate Hanoi’s food scene. Their deep understanding of the culinary domain allows them to critique, savor, and share authentic experiences with their audiences or patrons.

One participant stated, “As a food blogger, my expertise in the culinary domain shapes my approach to exploring Hanoi's food scene. I have developed a discerning palate and a deep understanding of flavors, textures, and cooking techniques. This knowledge allows me to appreciate the intricacies of local dishes and share authentic food experiences with my audience, highlighting the nuances of Hanoi's gastronomic offerings.” (PT001)

Additionally, as another participant highlighted, “As a chef, my expertise in the culinary field informs my approach to exploring Hanoi's diverse food landscape. With a keen understanding of flavors, ingredients, and cooking techniques, I can appreciate the complexity and artistry behind local dishes. This knowledge enhances my culinary experiences, allowing me to savor and critique Hanoi's gastronomic offerings with a discerning palate.” (PT002)

Furthermore, as indicated by another participant, “As a tour guide with a passion for food, I have developed a keen interest in exploring Hanoi's diverse gastronomic offerings. Exposure to different cuisines and culinary styles has expanded my knowledge of flavors, ingredients, and dining experiences. This culinary expertise enables me to share unique insights and recommendations with travelers, enhancing their food adventures in Hanoi”. (PT004)

Culinary exploration and education

Showcasing a theme of culinary exploration and education. Tourist approach Hanoi’s diverse food landscape with curiosity and passion, seeking to expand their knowledge of ingredients, cooking techniques, and flavor profiles. Their experiences enrich their palates, deepen their appreciation for food culture, and allow them to delve deeper into Hanoi’s culinary traditions.

As noted by one respondent, “As a student with a passion for culinary arts, I approach Hanoi's food scene with a curious and discerning eye. Exploring the city's diverse gastronomic offerings expands my knowledge of ingredients, cooking techniques, and flavor profiles. This culinary exploration enriches my palate and deepens my appreciation for the artistry and creativity behind Hanoi's food culture.” (PT003)

In addition, as outlined by another participant, “As a food lover, my expertise in the culinary domain informs my approach to exploring Hanoi's diverse food landscape. With a keen understanding of flavors, presentation, and customer preferences, I appreciate the nuances of local dishes and dining experiences.” (PT010)

As expressed by a different participant, “My passion for food and culinary arts guides my exploration of diverse Hanoi's food. With a growing knowledge of ingredients and flavor profiles, I appreciate the details of local dishes and experiences. My dining adventures enable me to delve deeper into Hanoi's food culture and culinary traditions.” (PT012)

Conclusion integrated results from both studies

The integrated results from both studies reveal a complex interplay between DPL, CIN, and CDL while highlighting the nuanced role of cultural background and culinary expertise. The quantitative analysis demonstrated that DPL positively influences CDI, CEX, and ultimately CDL, although CIN does not directly affect CDL. Notably, both CDI and CEX mediate the relationship between DPL and CDL, emphasizing the importance of perceptions and experiences in fostering loyalty. Interestingly, while CIN does not moderate the direct path to CDL, it does play a significant role in moderating the relationship between CEX and CDL, suggesting that a deeper engagement in culinary experiences can enhance loyalty for culinary destinations.

Complementing these quantitative findings, the qualitative study provided rich insights into the importance of cultural background and culinary expertise among Vietnamese tourists. Through interviews, it became evident that cultural heritage significantly influences culinary exploration and enhances the overall travel experience, with respondents identifying as food enthusiasts and cultural representatives. This perspective indicates that culinary traditions act as vital connectors during travel, thereby enriching the culinary experience and fostering a deeper emotional connection to destinations. These qualitative themes enhance the understanding of how cultural dimensions influence the relationships outlined in the quantitative study, ultimately offering a foundational framework for future research focusing on the intersection of cultural involvement and culinary tourism. Together, these findings underscore the value of incorporating quantitative and qualitative approaches to capture the dynamic factors affecting culinary destination loyalty fully.

Implications, limitations, and recommendations

Theoretical implications

Within the context of the SOR theory (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974), the study’s results have significant theoretical implications. In this study, DPF is an external stimulus that positively influences CDI (H1), CEX (H2), and CDL (H3). The findings suggest that individuals motivated to engage in culinary travel tend to perceive culinary destinations more favorably (Davras and Özperçin, 2023; Molina-Collado et al., 2024; Pereira et al., 2022). Additionally, DPF positively influences CEX, leading travelers to appreciate the local culinary offerings more deeply (Huete-Alcocer and Hernandez-Rojas, 2022; Luong and Ho, 2023; Su et al., 2020). Consequently, higher motivation levels toward local culinary experiences are associated with greater loyalty to the culinary destination (Luong, 2024; Su et al., 2020). These findings align with the SOR theory, highlighting the significance of external stimuli in shaping internal processes and subsequent behavior (Chi et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2021; Tuncer, 2021; Yasami et al., 2020).

Furthermore, the positive influence of CDI on CEX (H4) and CDL (H5) is reliable with the SOR theory (Chi et al., 2022; Sultan et al., 2021; Sutiadiningsih et al., 2023). This highlights the critical role of CDI in shaping tourists’ experiences and fostering their loyalty, aligning with previous research on the importance of destination image (Davras and Özperçin, 2023; Kalpidis et al., 2023; Luong, 2023a; Recuero-Virto and Arróspide, 2024). Additionally, the findings show that greater CEX directly contributes to higher levels of loyalty, reinforcing the connection between immersive culinary experiences and visitor commitment to the destination (Huete-Alcocer and Hernandez-Rojas, 2022; Jiang et al., 2023; Luong, 2023a). Therefore, positive external stimuli in the SOR, such as a positive destination image, can evoke positive organismic responses, resulting in higher experiences and increased loyalty. These findings underline the importance of managing and promoting culinary destination image to enhance tourists’ experiences and loyalty.

The findings suggest that CDI (H6) and CEX (H7) are significant mediators in the relationship between DPF and CDL, supporting the application of the SOR theory (Jiang et al., 2023; Levitt et al., 2019). This aligns with existing literature emphasizing the mediating effects of destination image and experiences on the relationship between travel motivation and loyalty (Bayih and Singh, 2020; Luong, 2023a, 2023c; Wondirad et al., 2021). The SOR theory states that for external stimuli to affect behavior, cognitive assessments, and emotional reactions, which are internal processes of the organism, mediate this link. Based on the results, a positive perception of both CDI and CEX fosters greater loyalty among tourists to Ha Noi as a culinary destination, reinforcing the relevance of SOR theory in understanding customer behavior in culinary tourism (Davras and Özperçin, 2023; Liang and Lai, 2023; Yasami et al., 2020).

The relationship between CIN and CDL was insignificant in this study (H9). This unexpected finding challenges conventional assumptions regarding the main impact of culinary experiences on fostering loyalty towards a destination. The lack of a direct association between CIN and CDL suggests the presence of other influential factors that might have a more pronounced effect on shaping tourists’ CDL (Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Davras and Özperçin, 2023). This result implies a more complicated relationship between CIN and CDL than previously assumed, highlighting the importance of understanding the diverse influences on tourist behavior and preferences (Anton Martin et al., 2021; Khoshkam et al., 2023; Recuero-Virto and Arróspide, 2024; Testa et al., 2024). This relationship’s complexity emphasizes the need for further exploration to uncover the nuanced dynamics that underlie tourists’ CDL in Hanoi, Vietnam.

Contrary to expectations, CIN did not moderate the relationships between DPF and CDL (H10), as well as between CDI and CDL (H11). These hypotheses may be explained for some reasons. Firstly, CIN might not significantly moderate the relationships between DPF, CDI, and CDL in the context of the Ha Noi heritage destination in Vietnam. The cultural and historical significance of Ha Noi’s culinary heritage might already be a strong motivator for tourists, and their perception of the destination’s culinary image may be formed independently of their level of involvement. Secondly, other factors such as personal preferences, local food consumption, or cultural norms could affect the relationships examined in this study (Kim et al., 2022; Silaban et al., 2023; Sultan et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2023)more effectively.

Nonetheless, CIN did moderate the association between CEX and CDL (H12). This finding suggests that the degree of CIN significantly influences the relationship between the dining experience and subsequent patronage of the dining establishment. Ha Noi is renowned for its rich culinary heritage, offering tourists diverse and unique food experiences. Through participating in gastronomic pursuits and fully embracing the regional cuisine, travelers may strengthen their connection with the location and augment their level of contentment. This, in turn, fosters greater loyalty toward Ha Noi as a culinary destination (Gu et al., 2020; Luong and Long, 2025; Yang et al., 2020).

Furthermore, the qualitative findings contribute significantly to the SOR theory by illustrating how cultural background and culinary expertise are meaningful contextual stimuli influencing travelers’ emotional and cognitive responses during culinary tourism experiences (Hashemi et al., 2023; Luong and Long, 2025). Identifying themes such as cultural enthusiasts and ambassadors and the impact of cultural heritage and culinary traditions emphasizes the importance of sociocultural factors in shaping tourists’ perceptions and involvement in culinary experiences (Anton Martin et al., 2021; Hashemi et al., 2023; Putra et al., 2023). Moreover, the dimensions of culinary expertise, including professional knowledge and educational exploration, indicate how these stimuli can enhance cognitive engagement and appreciation for culinary offerings, leading to stronger emotional connections and ultimately influencing loyalty (Kim and Huang, 2021; Zhang et al., 2022). This nuanced understanding of how different stimuli (cultural background and culinary expertise) impact the organism’s (tourists’) response (emotional and behavioral loyalty) aligns with the SOR framework, highlighting the interplay of various factors that contribute to more profound and enriched culinary tourism experiences (Kim et al., 2022; Luong and Long, 2025; Thio et al., 2022).

Practical implications

The practical implications are significant for culinary tourist destinations, marketers, managers, local administrations, and politicians. Firstly, the results stated that DPF significantly influences CDI, CEX, and CDL. Thus, destination marketers can enhance DPF by promoting unique culinary experiences, local cuisine, and culinary events to stimulate tourists’ motivation to visit the destination (Davras and Özperçin, 2023; Kalpidis et al., 2023). For instance, culinary workshops that teach participants how to prepare regional specialties highlight the uniqueness of the local cuisine and foster a sense of connection to the culture. These activities can attract culinary enthusiasts and motivate them to choose the destination, as they enhance the appeal of experiencing authentic local flavors and traditions. Furthermore, targeted marketing campaigns on social media and travel platforms can amplify the visibility of these events, reaching a larger audience interested in culinary tourism.

Secondly, the study found that CDI positively influences CEX and CDL. Therefore, destination managers should manage CDI by investing in creating a positive and authentic culinary image by highlighting local food traditions, quality ingredients, and diverse culinary offerings (Luong and Ho, 2023; Putra et al., 2023; Silaban et al., 2023). This can be achieved by collaborating with local food establishments to ensure that their culinary products are prominently featured in promotional materials, thus reinforcing the authenticity of the destination’s food culture. Additionally, promotional strategies that emphasize farm-to-table experiences can attract conscious consumers who value sustainability and support for local farmers. Offering curated food tours that showcase a variety of culinary experiences, from street food to high-end dining, can also help shape a positive CDI. Engaging storytelling through marketing materials can further enhance potential visitors’ emotional connection, thus increasing their likelihood of selecting the destination for their culinary adventures.

Furthermore, CEX was found to impact CDL significantly. To enhance these experiences and appeal to a broader audience, destinations should prioritize delivering high-quality culinary experiences (Aksenova et al., 2022; Galati et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2024). For instance, offering innovative and memorable dining experiences, such as themed dining events or pop-up restaurants that feature local chefs, can further elevate the culinary tourism experience. Additionally, investing in training culinary professionals to provide excellent service, ensuring consistency in food quality, and highlighting local flavors and ingredients are critical steps in satisfying culinary tourists. Policymakers can support these initiatives by providing resources and funding for culinary training programs, thereby enhancing the local hospitality workforce.

Moreover, although CIN did not moderate the relationships between DPF and CDL or between CDI and CDL, but it significantly influenced the relationship between CEX and CDL. Therefore, destinations should actively control and promote CIN by creating opportunities for tourists to engage more deeply in culinary activities (Aksenova et al., 2022; Klarin et al., 2023; Putra et al., 2023). This could include organizing cooking classes, food tastings, or interactive culinary events that allow tourists to participate directly in the culinary process. By facilitating these engaging experiences, destinations can deepen tourists’ involvement, strengthen their loyalty, and foster a sense of personal connection and empowerment. Small business owners, particularly in the food and beverage sector, can leverage these findings by offering unique, hands-on experiences that encourage participation, which can help differentiate their offerings in a competitive market.

The study’s qualitative findings underscore two main themes, cultural background, and culinary expertise, that carry significant practical implications for the culinary tourism sector. The theme of cultural background, which includes dimensions such as food enthusiasts and cultural ambassadors, highlights the potential for local stakeholders to leverage community members as advocates for their culinary culture (Luong and Long, 2025; Stone et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2023). Destinations can create authentic and relatable narratives that resonate with tourists seeking genuine culinary experiences by actively engaging food enthusiasts in promoting local cuisine. The dimension of cultural heritage’s influence on culinary exploration suggests that emphasizing local food traditions and history in marketing efforts can enhance tourists’ appreciation for the destination’s culinary offerings. Furthermore, the role of culinary traditions as cultural connectors in travel experiences indicates the importance of developing programs that encourage cultural exchanges, such as cultural food festivals or chef-led culinary tours, which can foster deeper connections between visitors and local communities.

On the other hand, the theme of culinary expertise sheds light on the value of professional culinary training and education as essential components in enhancing the overall quality of culinary experiences (Molina-Collado et al., 2024; Silaban et al., 2023; Wondirad et al., 2021). Destinations can invest in training programs that develop local culinary talent and educate culinary professionals about the significance of local ingredients and traditional cooking methods. By elevating the skill level of chefs and other culinary professionals, destinations can ensure that tourists receive high-quality culinary experiences that reflect the region’s authentic flavors and cultural significance. These findings suggest that by emphasizing cultural backgrounds and culinary expertise in their strategies, stakeholders can create enriching culinary tourism experiences that satisfy visitors and promote sustainable tourism practices that honor and preserve local culinary heritage.

Limitations and recommendations

While this research offers significant insights, it is important to acknowledge specific limitations. This study’s focus on domestic tourists in Vietnam offers valuable insights but limits the generalizability of the findings to international contexts. The experiences and preferences of international tourists, which may differ significantly, were not fully addressed. Future research should include a diverse participant pool encompassing both domestic and international tourists to enhance the applicability of the results across various culinary tourism settings. The reliance on online surveys conducted through social media platforms (such as Zalo and Facebook) may introduce sampling bias and limit the generalizability of the findings. Future studies may involve hand-on-hand surveys at the research site to mitigate this concern. While the study utilized in-person interviews to complement the online interviews and explored factors like cultural backgrounds and culinary expertise, future research should expand on these methods to address sampling limitations and better understand the moderating effects of these variables on key relationships. Furthermore, while this study primarily investigated culinary involvement, future investigations should continue exploring culinary tourism’s complex dynamics by integrating quantitative measures with qualitative insights. Including perspectives from international tourists in future research may also provide valuable insights into how Hanoi is perceived globally as a culinary destination, ultimately offering a more comprehensive view of its appeal. Lastly, using PLS-SEM as the analytical method is suitable for exploring complex relationships but may be vulnerable to sampling errors, particularly due to the small size of the qualitative data. To address these limitations, it is recommended that the sample size be increased for future studies and that SPSS and AMOS be utilized to run CB-SEM to ensure rigorous analysis.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethics statement

ORCID iD

The-Bao Luong

Author Biographies

The-Bao Luong is a lecturer from the Faculty of Fashion and Tourism at Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology and Education. His research interests included Food Tourism, Cultural Tourism, Ecotourism, and Tourist Behavior.

Dang Thuan An Nguyen is a lecturer at International University, VNU - HCM. Her research focuses on travel transformation, solo travel, and tourist behavior.

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