Personal value preferences and burnout of social workers

Abstract

Summary

The present study examines the connection between the personal value preferences of social workers and their burnout. A total of 512 Israeli social workers participated in the study.

Findings

Socio-demographic characteristics explained only a small proportion of the variance in the social workers' burnout; however, years of experience in social work, education, and salary were significant predictors of the social workers' burnout. Personal value preferences explained a substantial proportion of the variance in the social workers' burnout beyond the effect of the socio-demographic variables. A higher preference for the benevolence, universalism, and achievement values and a lower preference for the power and face values were associated with less burnout.

Applications

The results obtained are discussed in light of the value congruence paradigm. The study's implications for the training and practice of social workers are discussed.

Keywords

Social work social work values burnout Israel

Introduction

Burnout was initially defined by Freudenberger (1974) as a phenomenon found among professionals who experience intense contact with their clients and who express an inability to cope with stressors at work. Freudenberger (1974, 1980) described their conditions as including fatigue, depleted physical and mental strength, and a sense of being worn out as a result of exaggerated goals and unrealistic expectations imposed by the workers themselves or by the society. Today, the most widely accepted definition of burnout is that suggested by Maslach and her colleagues, who define burnout as a chronic state of emotional exhaustion, accompanied by a tendency to depersonalize others and a diminished sense of personal accomplishment due to coping with demanding work situations (Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Schaufeli & Greenglass, 2001).

Social workers help people to advance their social status, and to improve their physical and mental well-being (IASW, 1994; NASW, 2008). Many of the social workers' clients suffer from social inequality and discrimination, and must cope with different traumatic events in their life. Social workers' often function in emotionally intense environments with limited resources, earning relatively low salaries, and must cope with the often conflicting demands between their professional ethics and their actual work in the field (Dekel & Peled, 2008; Lloyd, King, & Chenoweth, 2002; Reamer, 1998). Due to the stressful conditions of their work, social workers are vulnerable to burnout.

The consequences of burnout are potentially very serious for social workers, their clients, and service agencies. Burnout can lead to deterioration in the quality of care or service that the social workers provide (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). In addition, it can affect the solutions offered for clients' problems and can impair treatment outcomes. Finally, burnout contributes to the mental and physical health problems of workers and increases their turnover (Toppinen-Tanner, Kalimo, & Mutanen, 2002). Due to the serious possible consequences of burnout, it is important to investigate the factors affecting this phenomenon among social workers.

Several studies on the burnout of social workers have been conducted recently, in Israel (Ben-Porat & Itzhaky, 2011; Dekel & Peled, 2008; Hamama, 2012; Ron & Shamai, 2011) and elsewhere (Campbell, Perry, Maertz, Allen, & Griffeth; Lloyd et al., 2002). However, most of these studies have focused on the socio-demographic characteristics of social workers (e.g., age, gender, education, and seniority) and their working conditions (e.g., training, workload, supervision, and organizational support) as predictors of burnout. The present study aims to broaden the understanding of various factors affecting the burnout of social workers, focusing on their psychological characteristics. Specifically, it investigates the connection between the personal value preferences of social workers and their burnout.

Personal value preferences reflect the general motivational goals of individuals and, as such, affect their cognition, emotions, and behavior, including those related to their work (Ros, Schwartz, & Surkiss, 1999; Schwartz, 2006). On the other hand, social work, as well as many other professions, has a clearly defined set of professional values, and professional ethics require social workers to follow the specific value priorities in their practice (IASW, 1994; NASW, 2008). Based on the general person–environment fit principle (Edwards & Cooper, 1990; Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005) and the more specific value congruence paradigm (Knafo & Sagiv, 2004), the present study tests the hypothesis that social workers whose personal value preferences closely match the core values of their profession will suffer less burnout.

From a theoretical point of view, the main contribution of the present study is in the testing of the value congruence paradigm for the social work profession. From a practical point of view, understanding the connection between the personal value preferences and burnout of social workers may indicate new emphases for their selection and training, which, in turn, may improve the quality of social services. It may also suggest new directions for improving the well-being of social workers and help decrease their turnover.

Theory of values

The present study is based on Schwartz's theory of values (Schwartz, 1992, 2006; Schwartz et al., 2012), which defines values as desirable trans-situational goals that serve as guiding principles in people's lives. The theory states that personal value preferences reflect general motivations; therefore, they affect the individuals' perception of reality and direct their behavior (Schwartz, 2006). In its latest formulation (Schwartz et al., 2012), the theory specifies a comprehensive set of 12 motivationally distinct values: power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, humility, conformity, tradition, security, and face. Table 1 presents definitions of the values in terms of their motivational goals.

Table 1.

Definitions of the 12 basic values in terms of their motivational goals (Knafo, Daniel, & Khoury-Kassabri, 2008; Schwartz et al., 2012).

Values	Definitions in terms of motivational goals
Universalism	Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection of the welfare of people and nature
Benevolence	Caring for the welfare of others with whom one is in frequent social contact
Humility	Recognizing one's insignificance in the larger scheme of things
Conformity	Limiting actions and urges that might violate rules, laws, social expectations, and norms
Tradition	Maintaining and preserving cultural, family, or religious traditions
Security	Preserving safety, harmony, and stability of the self, immediate environment, and the wider social structure
Face	Obtaining a sense of security and power through maintaining one's public image and avoiding humiliation
Power	Aspiration for social status through gaining control and dominance over other people and resources
Achievement	Acquiring personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards
Hedonism	Pursuit of pleasure and sensual gratification
Stimulation	Striving for excitement, novelty, and change
Self-direction	Freedom to cultivate one's own ideas and abilities and to determine one's own actions

The theory assumes the existence of dynamic relations between these values: pursuit of each value has consequences that may conflict or may be congruent with the pursuit of other values. The conflicts and congruities among all 12 values yield an integrated structure of four higher-order value types arrayed along two orthogonal dimensions: self-enhancement vs. self-transcendence and openness to change vs. conservation (Figure 1). Self-enhancement includes the values of achievement and power, and emphasizes the pursuit of self-interest through demonstrating competence and attaining social status and dominance over others. Self-transcendence includes the values of universalism and benevolence, emphasizing concern for the welfare and interests of others, and contradicts the self-enhancement values. Openness to change includes the values of self-direction and stimulation, emphasizing independent action, thought and feeling, and a willingness to engage in new experiences. Conservation includes the values of security, conformity, and tradition, emphasizing self-restriction, order, safety, and stability, and opposes the openness to change values.

The value congruence paradigm

The value congruence paradigm assumes that people whose personal values are congruent with those of their profession and/or the organization to which they belong have a higher level of well-being, are more motivated to continue their organizational membership, and are more likely to strive for a career in the organization (Knafo & Sagiv, 2004; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Tartakovsky & Cohen, 2014). Sagiv and Schwartz (2000) named three mechanisms that may explain the process through which the person–organization value congruence influences workers’ well-being and motivation. The first is called ‘environmental affordances’. It assumes that organizations whose goals and values match those of the individuals who belong to them afford them with opportunities to attain their important goals and thus increase their psychological well-being and motivation. The second mechanism is related to social support and sanctions. People who endorse the values prevailing in their social environments are likely to receive validation of their values and enjoy social support from their organization. In contrast, individuals who express values that substantially differ from those prevailing in their social environment are likely to experience social sanctions. Finally, the third mechanism assumes that personal well-being may be undermined by an internal conflict of values, which develops when people internalize the values of their social environment that differ from their own.

The value congruence hypothesis has received support in several studies. Sagiv and Schwartz (2000) found that power values correlated negatively with subjective well-being among psychology students, while it correlated positively among management students; the opposite pattern was found for the universalism values. Ivgi (2003, cited in Sagiv et al., 2004) found that among teachers in religious schools in Israel, where tradition and conformity values are emphasized, job satisfaction and satisfaction with life correlated positively with attributing high importance to the benevolence, conformity, and tradition values and with attributing low importance to the power values. Finally, a study conducted among students from Argentina, Bulgaria, and Finland found that the similarity between individual and group values was positively related to life satisfaction and positive affect, and negatively related to negative affect (Sortheix & Lönnqvist, 2014).

Social work values

The first formulation of the value preferences of the social work profession was developed by Pumphrey (1959, cited in Reamer, 1998), who proposed that social work emphasizes social justice, social change, and satisfaction of basic human needs. Gordon (1965, cited in Reamer, 1998) formulated the professional values of social work as interdependence among individuals, individuals' social responsibility for one another, individuals' common human needs as well as their uniqueness, the importance of social action and social responsibility, and society's obligation to eliminate obstacles to individual self-realization. Recently published analyses of social work values claim that this profession emphasizes social justice, dignity, individual freedom, and personal worth (Banks, 2008; Reamer, 1998).

Despite the proclaimed importance of values to social work (IASW, 1994; NASW, 2008), no study focusing on this issue was found when preparing this article. However, a study conducted in Israel provides data enabling a comparison between the value preferences of social workers with those of individuals from 31 other occupations (Knafo & Sagiv, 2004; see their Appendix). According to this study, social workers reported a relatively high preference for the benevolence, universalism, and self-direction values, and a relatively low preference for the hedonism, achievement, power, and security values. Therefore, the results of this study indicate that social work as a profession emphasizes the self-transcendence and openness to change values, and deemphasizes the self-enhancement and conservation values.

Based on the value congruence paradigm and the data on the value preferences of social workers, the main hypothesis of the present study was formulated as follows: social workers with a high preference for the benevolence, universalism, and self-direction values and with a low preference for the hedonism, achievement, power, and security values will experience less burnout. It was further assumed that personal value preferences will predict the burnout level of social workers beyond the effect of various socio-demographic characteristics.

Method

Sample

A total of 512 social workers living across Israel and working in different social service organizations participated in the study. The present study has included only Jewish social workers, because they constitute about 96% of all social workers in Israel (Bar-Zuri, 2004), and because Palestinian Israelis differ from Jewish Israelis in their socio-demographic characteristics, values, and social norms (Fefferman, 2011; Gabarin, 2010; Haj-Yahia, Bargal, & Guterman, 2000; Schwartz, 2006). Table 2 presents the socio-demographic characteristics of the sample, comparing them with the characteristics of social workers as reported by Bar-Zuri (2004). The results obtained indicate that the study sample is representative of the overall population of Jewish social workers in Israel regarding most of the socio-demographic characteristics: age, gender, family status, immigration status, and workload. There was a higher proportion of social workers with an MSW degree among the study participants. However, since 2004, when the last survey of all social workers was conducted, the number of social workers with an MSW degree in Israel has substantially increased (Hovev, Lontel, & Katan, 2013). Among the study participants, there were graduates of all five universities as well as colleges that teach social work in Israel. On average, the study participants worked 12 years as social workers (SD = 9.72, range 1–40); 23% of them held managerial positions at different levels, and 39% were supervisors.

Table 2.

Socio-demographic characteristics of the sample compared to the population of social workers in Israel.

Socio-demographic characteristic	Population	Sample
Age	40.2	39.9 (SD = 9.76; range 25–67)
Gender (% of females)	90	91
Family status (% of married or living with a partner)	66	66
Ethnicity (% of Jews)	96	100
Immigration status (% of foreign born)	15	13
Education (% with a MSW or higher)	37	62
Average work hours per week	35.6	33.0 (SD = 16.7; range 4–65)

Procedure

The study used self-report anonymous questionnaires. The questionnaires were distributed by students participating in a senior thesis seminar at the Tel Aviv University School of Social Work as part of their course requirements. The students distributed most of the questionnaires in their workplaces, which included dozens of organizations focusing on different fields of social work across Israel. In addition, the questionnaires were distributed through professional internet forums and social networks. The goals of the study were explained and a signed informed consent was obtained from all the participants. Study participants completed the questionnaires during their work hours or at home and returned them directly to the students in a sealed envelope or by email. The return rate was about 70%.

Instruments

Burnout

Social workers’ burnout was measured using the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). The MBI consists of 22 items divided into three scales: Emotional exhaustion, Depersonalization, and Personal accomplishment. Emotional exhaustion refers to feeling overextended, overloaded, and drained from work tasks (e.g., ‘I feel emotionally exhausted because of my work’). Depersonalization is characterized by a negative, callous, and cynical attitude toward clients (e.g., ‘I feel as though I relate to some of my clients as objects’). Finally, a diminished sense of personal accomplishment reflects a decline in feeling competent in one's work (e.g., ‘I have accomplished many worthwhile things in this job’). The participants reported their level of agreement with each item on a 5-point scale (from 1 – completely disagree, to 5 – completely agree). Higher scores on the Exhaustion and Depersonalization scales indicate a higher level of burnout, while higher scores on the Personal accomplishment scale indicate less burnout. Internal consistencies of the burnout scales measured by Cronbach's alpha were as follows: Exhaustion: .86, Depersonalization: .78, and Accomplishment: .74.

Personal value preferences.

The personal value preferences of the social workers were measured using the latest version of the Portrait Values Questionnaire, PVQ-R (Schwartz et al., 2012). This questionnaire consists of 57 items. Each item portrays a person's goals, aspirations, or wishes that indicate the importance of a specific value. Item examples: ‘It is important to him to avoid upsetting other people’ (conformity); ‘Being creative is important to her’ (self-direction). For each item, respondents indicate how similar the described person is to them on a 6-point scale, from 1 (not like me at all) to 6 (very much like me). Scores for 12 basic values are calculated as means of the relevant items. As recommended by Schwartz et al. (2012), to correct for individual differences in use of the response scales, each participant's responses were centered on his or her own mean; that is, from each value score the average of all 57 values was subtracted. Internal consistency of the scales obtained in the present study was satisfactory and similar to those reported in previous studies (Cronbach's alpha = .69–.85).

Results

First, bivariate correlations between 11 socio-demographic characteristics and 12 values with the three burnout components were calculated (Table 3). Next, hierarchical regression analyses were conducted separately for each of the three burnout components (Table 4). In each analysis, the eight socio-demographic characteristics whose bivariate correlations with at least one burnout component were significant were included as predictors in the first step of the hierarchical regression. The 10 values whose bivariate correlations with at least one burnout component were significant were included as predictors in the second step of the hierarchical regression.

Table 3.

Pearson correlation coefficients between the socio-demographic variables, personal value preferences, and the components of burnout.

	Exhaustion	Depersonalization	Accomplishment
Socio-demographic variables:
Age	−.03	.04	.03
Gender (1-male; 2-female)	.00	−.08	.03
Education (1-BSW; 2-MSW)	−.10*	−.08	.20***
Religiosity	−.06	.02	.03
Immigration (1-Israeli-born; 2-immigrant)	.04	.04	−.09*
Years of experience in social work	−.18***	−.16**	.25***
Work hours a week	−.05	−.04	.06
Number of clients	.05	.13**	−.08
Salary	−.14**	−.10*	.24***
Manager (1-frontline worker; 2-manager)	−.08	−.06	.10*
Supervisor (1-no supervisory functions; 2-supervisor)	−.03	−.06	.13**
Personal value preferences:
Self-direction	−.10*	−.12*	.22***
Stimulation	−.02	.05	.11*
Hedonism	.07	.01	.05
Achievement	.01	.06	.10*
Power	.12**	.29***	−.20***
Face	.12**	.15***	−.15**
Security	.06	.02	.04
Tradition	−.01	.04	−.16***
Conformity	.02	.00	−.17***
Humility	−.02	−.03	−.15**
Benevolence	−.14**	−.29***	.23***
Universalism	−.05	−.15**	.09*
The burnout components:
Exhaustion	1
Depersonalization	.49***	1
Accomplishment	−.20***	−.24***	1
M(SD)	2.25(1.01)	1.29(1.13)	4.14(.81)

Note: *p<.05, **p<.02, ***p<.002.

Table 4.

Summary of the hierarchical regression analyses for the socio-demographic variables and the personal value preferences predicting the burnout components.

Predictors	Exhaustion		Depersonalization		Accomplishment
	Step I	Step II	Step I	Step II	Step I	Step II
Socio-demographic variables:
Education	−.05	−.03	−.02	.01	.12**	.11**
Immigration	−.04	−.03	.07	.08	.01	.00
Years of experience	−.14**	−.14*	−.14**	−.14**	.14**	.19***
Number of clients	.05	.05	.12*	.11*	−.07	−.04
Salary	−.07	−.09	−.03	−.07	.15**	.15**
Manager	−.02	−.02	.00	.00	−.03	−.06
Supervisor	.06	.06	.02	.03	.01	−.02
Values:
Self-direction		−.02		.00		.06
Stimulation		.04		.09		.03
Achievement		−.06		−.08		.20***
Power		.13**		.21***		−.08
Face		.10*		.11*		−.10*
Tradition		−.01		.04		−.06
Conformity		.03		.00		−.04
Humility		.02		−.01		−.05
Benevolence		−.08		−.24**		.25***
Universalism		.02		−.10*		.12**
R ²	.04	.08	.04	.18	.10	.29
Adjusted R ²	.03	.05	.03	.15	.09	.26
F	F(7;504) = 3.14, p = .003	F(17;494) = 2.47, p = .001	F(7;504) = 3.29, p = .002	F(17;494) = 6.29, p = .000	F(7;504) = 7.81, p = .000	F(17;494) = 13.1, p = .000
F for change in R ²		F(10;494) = 1.96, p = .036		F(10;494) = 8.07, p = .000		F(10;494) = 11.7, p = .000

Note: *p<.05, **p<.02, ***p<.002.

Socio-demographic characteristics explained only a small proportion of the variance of the different burnout components: 4% of exhaustion, 4% of depersonalization, and 10% of personal accomplishment. However, several socio-demographic characteristics were significant predictors of the different burnout components. Education was associated with a stronger sense of personal accomplishment (β = .12). Seniority was associated with a lower level of exhaustion (β = −.14) and depersonalization (β = −.14), and with a higher sense of personal accomplishment (β = .14). A larger number of clients was associated with a stronger sense of depersonalization (β = .12). Finally, a higher salary was associated with a greater sense of personal accomplishment (β = .15).

The personal value preferences added in the second step of the hierarchical regression significantly improved the prediction of all three burnout components. Together with the socio-demographic characteristics, values explained 8% of the variance of exhaustion, 18% of depersonalization, and 29% of personal accomplishment. The regression coefficients of several values with different burnout components were significant. A higher preference for the achievement values was associated with a higher sense of personal accomplishment (β = .20). A higher preference for the power values was associated with a higher level of exhaustion (β = .13) and depersonalization (β = .21). A higher preference for the face values was associated with a higher level of exhaustion (β = .10) and depersonalization (β = .11), and with a lower sense of personal accomplishment (β = −.10). A higher preference for the benevolence values was associated with a lower sense of depersonalization (β = −.24) and a higher sense of accomplishment (β = .25). Finally, a higher preference for the universalism values was associated with a lower sense of depersonalization (β = −.10) and a higher sense of personal accomplishment (β = .12).

Discussion

The present study has demonstrated that personal value preferences of social workers explain a significant proportion of the variance in all three burnout components. In addition, it was found that the contribution of values in explaining burnout was significant beyond the effect of the socio-demographic characteristics measured. A higher preference for the benevolence, universalism, and achievement values was associated with less burnout, while a higher preference for the power and face values was associated with a higher burnout level.

The results obtained mainly corroborated the value congruence paradigm. Social workers whose personal value preferences were congruent with the value system of their profession (a high preference for the self-transcendence values of benevolence and universalism and a low preference for the self-enhancement values of power and face) suffered less burnout. These findings indicate that social work as a profession enables the attainment of some personal motivational goals while it impedes the attainment of other goals, and when the attainment of an important goal is frustrated, social workers may experience burnout. Specifically, the theory of values (Schwartz et al., 2012) and the results obtained in the present study indicate that social work enables the attainment of personal motivational goals related to caring for the welfare of the others, as well as understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection of the welfare of people and nature. At the same time, social work is not compatible with the goals of achieving social status through gaining control and dominance over other people and resources and with the goals of obtaining a sense of security and power through maintaining one's public image and avoiding humiliation.

As mentioned above, the main motivational goals of the self-transcendence values of benevolence and universalism are to help others, protect them, and enhance their well-being (Schwartz, 2006). These motivational goals may be attained in social work, because its mission is to help alienated and weak populations (IASW, 1994). Therefore, social workers who have a stronger preference for these values are at a lower risk of being frustrated in their work and experiencing burnout. Relatively low salaries, the low social status of social work as a profession, as well as working with people who themselves have a low social status – all these factors may be responsible for the connection found between the power and face values and burnout of social workers. Social workers who have a stronger preference for the power and face values are more likely to find that their goals to achieve control over people and resources and to preserve their public image are frustrated; therefore, they may be more prone to feel exhausted, depersonalize their clients, look down upon them, and relate to them in a cynical fashion.

The negative connection between the achievement values and burnout of social workers found in the present study was unexpected. One previous study has demonstrated that social workers, compared to people working in other professions, have a lower preference for the achievement values (Knafo & Sagiv, 2004). Therefore, the positive connection between the achievement values and a sense of personal accomplishment found among social workers in the present study seems to be unrelated to the value congruence paradigm. However, it is possible that social workers for whom acquiring personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards is important have a higher sense of personal accomplishment because they invest more effort in their work. Previous studies have found that people with a higher preference for the achievement values have a higher level of education, a higher income, and are more motivated to develop their career (Schwartz, 2006; Tartakovsky & Cohen, 2014). In the present study, a higher preference for the achievement values was also associated with a higher level of education, a higher salary, and with being a manager or a supervisor. However, the hypothesis regarding the potential mediating role of one's efforts in the connection between the achievement values and a sense of personal accomplishment is tentative and requires further research.

Limitations of the present study

The present study has several limitations. First, the study is cross-sectional and thus causality of the relationships between values and burnout may not be inferred. Further studies should use a longitudinal design. For instance, it is possible to measure the personal value preferences of social workers before they begin working in social services and to measure their burnout some time afterwards. Second, the present study did not examine the effect of the organizational values on the social workers' burnout. However, different psychosocial services may have their own set of value preferences, which may differ from the general value preferences found for social work as a profession. Therefore, when the social workers' values do not fit the values of the employing organization, it may limit the social workers' ability to operate and, therefore, increase their burnout. Third, the present study used self-report questionnaires, which are susceptible to social desirability bias. It is possible that the social workers participating in the present study under-reported their burnout. The depersonalization component may be especially susceptible for under-reporting, because it clearly contradicts the values and behavioral norms of the profession. Fourth, the present study did not examine many socio-demographic variables, among them those related to the family conditions and health status of the social workers, which may have a significant effect on their burnout. Finally, the study was conducted in one country, and value preferences vary cross-culturally (Schwartz, 2004). In addition, the conditions of social workers (e.g., salary, workload, and the prestige of the profession) also vary cross-culturally (Weiss-Gal & Welbourne, 2008). Therefore, in different countries, social work may enable the attainment of slightly different personal motivational goals. Thus, future studies should examine the connections between the personal value preferences and burnout of social workers cross-culturally.

Conclusions

The results of the present study indicate that personal value preferences of social workers are important factors affecting their burnout. Therefore, value-focused interventions may be used for increasing the social workers' work-related psychological well-being as well as the quality of their services. These interventions may be applied in the process of selection, education, and on-the-job training of social workers. Undoubtedly, this issue requires further research; however, a few general suggestions for using values for the selection and training of social workers are described below.

First, schools of social work should seek candidates with a higher preference for the benevolence, universalism, and achievement values and a lower preference for the power and face values. Choosing students with this value profile may increase the chances that they will advance the values emphasized by the profession of social work and, in the future, provide high quality services to their clients. In addition, social workers with this value profile are more likely to maintain their high work-related psychological well-being.

Second, the education and training of social workers should help them attain a better understanding of their personal value preferences and motivational goals. Moreover, changes in personal value preferences should be monitored throughout the university studies and during the career in the social work profession. Self-report questionnaires (like those applied in the present study), supervision, and personal therapy may be used for this purpose.

Third, educational institutions and social services should strive to increase the salience of the self-transcendence and achievement values while decreasing the salience of the power and face values among social workers. Several methods of value change suggested in the literature may be used for this purpose (e.g., Bardi & Goodwin, 2011; Grube, Mayton, & Ball-Rokeach, 1994). Among the most effective methods of value change are priming (using discussions, reading, or writing to increase one's awareness of specific values), identification with another person who has the desired set of values (e.g., an experienced social worker), and direct value confrontation and persuasion (whereby individuals are provided with information about the inconsistencies between their desired self-image and their value structures). Value-based education and training of social workers may lead to enhanced quality of services social workers provide and improve both their own quality of life as well as that of their clients. It may help decrease the burnout of social workers and their turnover, while increasing their psychological well-being.

Footnotes

Ethics

The study was approved by the Tel Aviv University Research Board.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Acknowledgements

The author thanks all students who participated in a senior thesis seminar at the Tel Aviv University School of Social Work and helped to distribute the research questionnaires. He also thanks the social workers who completed the questionnaires.

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