Understanding Malay and Chinese work ethics in Malaysia through proverbs

Introduction

Defined loosely as ‘short, traditional, and pithy saying[s]…stating a general truth or piece of advice’ (Oxford English Dictionary, 2017), proverbs provide intriguing insights into a particular culture’s values, beliefs and traditions. Certain proverbs describe fairly universal human experiences and insights: ‘like father, like son’, for instance, translates quite readily across a number of cultural boundaries (Mieder, 2008). Other proverbs, though, are more culture-specific in nature, imitating and influencing the lives, customs and principles of a particular group of people. The Ovambo people of Namibia say that ‘a woman is a basket’ (omukiintu ontungwa), which is unlikely to resonate with people elsewhere. But in a society where women seldom walk around without carrying a basket, this proverb portrays women as being especially resourceful (Stewart, 2005). The Malays and the Chinese also have their own set of proverbs which resonate more deeply in their cultures than they do in other cultures and which are consequently more relevant to their values and life patterns than they are to others. In particular, one should recognize the significance attached to proverbs in both traditional Malay (Ali, 1975) and Chinese (Fang, 2014; Zhang, 2016) societies not only as descriptive, sentimental expressions but also as explanatory agents and guides to social conduct.

Our aim in this article is to relate these proverbs to a key domain in social life: the workplace. More specifically, we investigate the relationship between proverbs and two aspects that are central to Malaysian discourse on work and the workplace (Richardson et al., 2016): (i) the values and attitudes towards work in general and (ii) workplace, social patterns and etiquette. Before proceeding further, however, it is important to specify whom we mean when we refer to ‘the Malays’ and ‘the Chinese’. Although the term ‘Malay’ is sometimes used quite liberally to include Malay Malaysians, most Filipinos and Indonesians, Muslim Thais, the Cape Malays of South Africa and the Malays of Sri Lanka (Milner, 2011), the present article is concerned solely with the Malays of Malaysia. Although most Indonesians observe a similar culture to the Malays, the Indonesian form of the Malay (or Indonesian) language differs to some extent from the Malay spoken in Malaysia, thus potentially limiting the crossover of certain proverbs. Moreover, the proverbs discussed here are all derived from texts related to the Malays of Malaya/Malaysia, with Indonesians (and even Bruneians) conspicuous only by their absence. To avoid confusion, they are therefore excluded from our discussion here. For the sake of comparative discussion, when we refer to ‘the Chinese’, we refer specifically to the Chinese diaspora community of Malaysia, though it is worth highlighting that the historical, demographic, economic and political context of the Chinese Malaysians closely mirrors those of major Chinese communities found elsewhere (Chuah et al., 2016).

This leads to the final point that we wish to make at the outset. The texts that provide the source for the proverbs presented here mostly contain English explanations and translations from the original languages, and we reproduce many of these translations directly here, although we have also made minor modifications in some instances in the belief that the original versions do not fully capture the proverbs’ intended meaning. Certain Malay proverbs, however, were selected from Malay-language peribahasa (proverb) collections without accompanying translations. In such instances, translations are our own. In the case of the Chinese proverbs, we have also included the original Chinese-language texts as references for Chinese-speaking readers.

The remainder of the article is structured as follows. The ensuing section discusses the quite remarkable ability of proverbs to allow observers to better understand the roots of a particular culture’s behaviour and mindset. Next, we explore the longstanding and important role of proverbs in Malay and Chinese cultures before focusing on their role in the Malay/Chinese workplace. In the following section, we explore the significance of and regard for ‘face’ through the lens of local proverbs. The article ends with some concluding remarks and managerial implications.

Proverbs as a window on culture

Proverbs have a quite extraordinary ability to provide an understanding of various aspects of a particular culture, revealing much about its beliefs, principles, morals and human qualities. The study of proverbs is nothing new, of course. The ancient Greeks and Romans amassed an impressive collection of proverbs, while the earliest known collection, recorded on Sumerian cuneiform tablets, can be traced back further still to around 2500 BC (Mieder and Dundes, 1994).

One of the universal and chief purposes of proverbs is to help individuals navigate their way through life’s trials and tribulations. Consequently, for just about every context conceivable, there is a proverb on hand to describe, caution or offer assurances and advice. What this also means, of course, is that proverbs, like life itself, can be somewhat paradoxical and contradictory in nature (Mieder, 2004, 2008). It is said, for instance, that ‘the pen is mightier than the sword’; yet it is also said that ‘actions speak louder than words’! Which is true? The answer of course is that both sayings have some inherent ‘truth’ in them, but each is applicable only in particular situations. Thus, the context in which a proverb is used is a matter of great importance, particularly with Malay (Brown, 1969) and Chinese (Peng and Nisbett, 1999) proverbs, which often contain multiple meanings and even apparent contradictions, and is something to which we will return in our discussion below.

The study of proverbs (paroemiology) is an important element of ethnography. Scholars have drawn on local proverbs to gain a better understanding of various aspects of human societies including the nature of speech (Fischer and Yoshida, 1968), principles of practical reasoning (Goodwin and Wenzel, 1979) and attitudes towards child development (Penfield and Duru, 1988 ) and gender relations (Dorn, 1986). Management scholars, however, have not been quite as forthcoming in paroemiology, which is rather surprising given that, as Tatira (2001) argues, proverbs permeate nearly all economic activities. Perhaps this disinterest among business researchers stems in part from ‘the ethos of modernity, with its forward-looking approach, its aesthetic of originality, and its rejection of the notion of traditional wisdom’ (Goddard and Wierzbicka, 2013: 184). To be fair, though, there are some notable exceptions that merit mentioning, such as studies investigating the phenomenon of using proverbs in advertising (Mieder and Mieder, 1977; Tatira, 2001). Fang (1999, 2006) and Yau (1988), meanwhile, explain the implications of various (PRC) Chinese proverbs for business negotiations and marketing, respectively.

Few writers, though, have attempted a cross-cultural study of proverbs and their reflection of the general values and attitudes towards work and workplace ethics. Given the recognition that proverbs have received from scholars in other branches of the humanities, it is important that researchers in the field of management also consider the values embedded in these titbits of wisdom and study their significance in the workplace.

Proverbs in Malay and Chinese society

Although proverbs are far from being unique to the Malays and the Chinese, they have long been a particularly significant feature in both cultures. In Malay daily intercourse, linguistic etiquette is traditionally both elaborate and artfully indirect in nature (Goddard, 2015; Hose, 1934). Clifford and Swettenham (1894, cited in Brown (1969: x)), in the Introduction to their Dictionary of the Malay Language, wrote of the Malay language:

Like French, it is essentially a diplomatic language and one admirably adapted for concealing the feelings and cloaking the real thoughts. Not even in French is it possible to be so polite…or to say such rude things with every appearance of exaggerated courtesy, as is the case in Malay.

As one of the world’s oldest cultures, the Chinese also have an impressive collection of proverbs encapsulating folk wisdom. Despite their long-standing presence in the country, the majority of Chinese Malaysians have held on to cultural traditions (Chuah et al., 2016), including the wide array of folk literature, of which proverbs (yan yu; 谚语) are a critical component (Peow, 2015, 2016). In fact, the study of Chinese proverbs is a compulsory component of the vernacular Chinese school curriculum in Malaysia. At this point, it should be noted that the notion of proverbs within the context of Chinese thought is slightly broader than in certain other cultures, as explained by Iakovleva and Nikolaeva (2016: 285):

Chinese set expressions are generally classified according to their compositional features into several groups: yànyu (complete sentences, which have didactic meaning and express a judgment), súyu (colloquial set phrases), chéngyu (idioms that have four-character structure), xihòuyu (allegorical sayings), géyán (maxims taken from well-known writings), jingjù (aphorisms), guànyòngyu (idioms, which meaning cannot be deduced from the sum of their constituent parts).’

Within the Malaysian context, Chinese proverbs can be linked to the world view of the earliest Chinese migrants, whose socio-economic activities were predominantly in agriculture or trade. As such, Ding (2017) notes that Chinese proverbs passed down through generations reflect a sensibility that is attuned to nature, its waxes and wanes. This agrarian lifestyle with its proximity to nature and its forces is reflected in examples of Chinese proverbs cited by Ding (2017: 158) such as ‘bending padi stalk signals big “fruit,” whilst upright padi stalk denotes small “fruit”’ (低头的庄稼穗必大, 仰头的庄稼穗必小). Such proverbs, Ding suggests, reflect the Chinese and Malay philosophy of life, which are both closely influenced by mutability in nature, subsequently conditioning both ethnic groups to be open to the concept of change: ‘as winds are unstable, so too victories in war are uncertain’ (风无常顺, 兵无常胜).

It is worth noting, as per Iakovleva and Nikolaeva, that ‘in no country does the proverb flourish more abundantly than in China’ (Hart, 1937: XIX). Anyone who deals with Chinese people or society soon ‘becomes aware of the all-pervading nature of proverbs and proverbial sayings in Chinese life’ (Rohsenow, 2003 : xi). This observation is valid as far as diasporic Chinese communities as well, especially in Malaysia where, as noted earlier, vernacular Chinese education remains a key feature of life.

Proverbs as a window on Malaysian work ethics

Workplace ethics: The importance of courtesy and face

Having discussed the place of work in the lives of the Malays and the Chinese, we now turn to ethics within the workplace. Here, we focus specifically on human relations within organizations, which constitutes a key component in the study of cross-cultural management (CCM). Recall that central to any interpersonal relations within the Malay society is the emphasis given to politeness and courtesy. To the European colonizers, this courtesy was in fact widely seen as one of the defining characteristics of the Malays (Swettenham, 1942). Malay culture is shaped in large part by the interrelated concepts of budi and adat (Richardson et al., 2016). Budi combines both intellectual and ethical qualities, including wisdom, virtue, etiquette and morality, while adat, often translated simply as ‘custom’, is in fact deeper and refers more to a society’s shared norms, values, beliefs and traditions (Ali, 1975; Raihanah, et al., 2010; Zainal, 1995). It is important to note also that budi and adat are not limited to the individual but rather are manifest collectively or at a societal level. Budi and adat guide many aspects of Malay protocol from simple gestures to family relations and citizen–royal communication. The importance of budi and adat at the workplace is just as profound, with generosity, respect, righteousness and a sense of shame all taken into account by Malay workers (Mohd Dahlan, 1991; Richardson et al., 2016).

At the heart of the budi concept lies the importance of recognizing one’s position within the social hierarchy and behaving in accordance with that position (Mohd Dahlan, 1991). As such, the Malay organization is typically characterized by a high degree of centralization and authoritative leadership styles (Lim, 2001). This hierarchical social structure is also reflected in a number of peribahasa, such as: ‘Sparrows with sparrows, hornbills with hornbills’ (Pipit sama pipit, enggang sama enggang – Tan, 1981: 38–39); ‘Water will mingle with water and become one, but the scum goes to the side all the same’ (Air sama air kelak menjadi satu, sampah ke tepi juga – i.e. the great mix with the great and, as a consequence, the humble are put on one side – trans. MBRAS, 1992: 23); and ‘The [goat] kid will never become a tiger cub’ (Anak kambing tidak akan jadi anak harimau – i.e. someone of low social rank can never become an aristocrat – Ainon and Abdullah, 2006: 17 – authors’ translation).

From this, we might conclude that subordinates are inclined to show tremendous respect to superiors at work. While this is largely true, one should not automatically surmise that senior members in an organization are completely free to do as they wish. The paradoxical nature of life and the proverbs that are designed to reflect it are apparent here too. While Malay subordinates may be apt to defer to authority, their peribahasa also call for humility, occasionally warning those higher up the social hierarchy of the consequences of abusing power, alluding to the possibility of the powerful becoming weak and the weak becoming powerful: ‘Follow the way of the rice plant (the more it grows full, the more it bows over)’ (Ikut resmi padi, (semakin berisi, semakin tunduk) – Goddard and Wierzbicka, 2013: 196); ‘Pay a just king homage due; unjust king we should subdue’ (Raja adil raja disembah, raja zalim raja disanggah – Hamilton, 1955: 50–51 – authors’ translation); and ‘A bird’s strength is in wings, a crab’s strength in claws’ (Kuat burung kerana sayap, kuat ketam kerana sepit – i.e. each man has his own strong points – trans. Tan, 1981: 48–49).

Therefore, as these proverbs suggest, subordinates in Malay organizations are advised to acknowledge and act in accordance with their place in life, while not suppressing their ambitions should they desire to climb higher up the social ladder. At the same time, those already in power (managers, supervisors and so on) should not mistake this respect for unqualified docility on the part of subordinates who are urged to reject abusive leaders.

Adat and budi also both stress the significance of manners and courtesy in all human intercourse and are both key components of Malay identity, as demonstrated by various proverbs: ‘A lost wife can be replaced, lost character spells ruin for the body’ (Hilang bini boleh dicari, hilang budi badan celaka – Winstedt, 1950: 64–65 ^{1 , 2} ); ‘Manners show decent’ (Usul menunjukkan asal – trans. MBRAS, 1992: 231); and ‘[One’s] dead body is wrapped in earth, [but one’s] kind disposition will always be remembered’ (Hancur badan dikandung tanah, budi yang baik dikenang juga – Ainon and Abdullah, 2006: 63 – authors’ translation).

Within the workplace, manners, kindness and generosity are visibly evident. It is not uncommon, for instance, for business meetings to be preceded or followed by a full meal as a gesture of courtesy. Extending this theme further, it is worth noting not only the importance of extending acts of kindness, but of reciprocating them too. For the Malays, hutang budi (a debt of kindness) must be repaid in order to save face and not affect one’s conscience, as the following proverbs warn: ‘Debts of gold can be repaid, but debts of kindness remain as long as you live’ (Hutang emas dapat dibayar, hutang budi dibawa mati – Ainon and Abdullah, 2008: 172, authors’ translation); ‘When a tiger dies, it leaves behind its stripes’ – that is, a man’s reputation lives on after his death (Harimau mati tinggal belangnya – trans. MBRAS, 1992: 77); and ‘When your bones whiten [i.e. when you die] you are buried in earth, [but your] kindness will still be remembered’ (Putih tulang dikandung tanah, budi yang baik dikenang juga – trans. MBRAS, 1992: 180 ¹ ).

In sum, there are many proverbs which reflect the Malays’ emphasis on courtesy, kindness and respect in the workplace. That there are very few proverbs which conflict with budi and adat is perhaps reflective of the Malays’ preference for politeness and sensitivity in their daily lives. Arguably, this emphasis on cordiality in society is itself reflective of the Malays’ desire for an orderly and harmonious societal-based community, in contrast to the general preference in certain Western cultures for individual rights and personal freedom (Lim, 2003). Of course, these values and principles may not always be present in organizations. Nevertheless, the proverbs above, like many others, merely stress the ideal to which workers (and society, more generally) should aspire.

The Chinese have a similar regard for courtesy and respect in the workplace. An important concept in Chinese work and business ethics is ‘giving face’ (给面子) meaning ‘giving due respect’ or its Malay equivalent, menjaga air muka. This principle applies in tandem with the Confucian precept of respect for one’s elders; in the workplace, emphasis is placed on preserving the good name of the establishment. A Chinese proverb states that ‘It is better for the body to be tortured than for the face to be embarrassed’ (宁可身骨苦，不叫面皮羞); and another expresses the Chinese regard for face more severely: ‘Willing to die to preserve one’s name [reputation]’ (宁愿人亡，亦要保得名在). Nevertheless, the Chinese are cautioned against excess in the name of face; thus ‘Borrow[ing] money to save face’ (借人银钱买脸光) is frowned upon. Lastly, the Chinese collective spirit (both in reference to family and the establishment) is reflected in the proverb, ‘When one spits at the sky, it will land on one’s own face’ (冲天啐唾沫，落在自己脸上). This idea is shared by the Malays in their saying meludah ke langit, jatuh ke muka sendiri, which carries the same meaning.

Another work-related principle which the Chinese hold dear is the idea of always repaying favours or good deeds. Hence, the proliferation of sayings is related to good deeds such as ‘Favours not repaid, you are not respectable; debts repaid, you are a hero’ (受恩不报非君子，有怨须偿是丈夫). At the same time, ‘Good deeds will be repaid by good deeds, whilst grudges will be avenged’ (有恩报恩，有仇报仇). However, ‘Repaying good deeds with evil’ (有恩不报反为仇) is considered abhorrent behaviour; therefore, another proverb enjoins us to ‘Avenge our enemies with good deeds, repay grudges with courtesy’ (冤将恩解，以德报怨). In a similar vein, good deeds are worth their weight in gold in Chinese ethics as reflected in the saying ‘Possessions are like grass but good deeds are like gold’ (以财为草，以身为宝). Hence, assistance or good deeds rendered must be repaid: ‘Good deeds deserve more than mere thanks’ (大恩不言谢).

Conclusion

Proverbs are noteworthy not only for their poetic and sentimental values, but also their ability to reveal much about cultural value systems and world views – which is a quite remarkable achievement given their brevity. There is something about their capacity to encapsulate complex phenomena in short, amusing phrases or sentences that have made them appealing over the millennia to people in just about every corner of the world. Proverbs occupy an especially important place among the Malays and Chinese in Malaysia by transmitting messages and preserving and reflecting local traditions and values.

Proverb scholarship plays an important part in our understanding of human societies and scholars from across the various disciplines of the humanities have acknowledged this and given it the attention it deserves. Unfortunately, scholars in the field of management and organization studies have, by comparison, been somewhat less interested in paroemiology, rarely studying their role in CCM and alluding to them only fleetingly (at best). The present work was intended as an effort to address this. Understanding the place of work in people’s lives, and why people behave the way they do in the workplace, demands an appreciation of the cultural values which underpin and guide their lives. In some cultures, proverbs extend far beyond mere sentimental or nostalgic romanticism, serving more as a manual for appropriate, ethical behaviour. The Malay and Chinese Malaysian cultures are two such cases. It is hoped that the analysis here encourages other writers to reflect not only on the general charm of proverbs, but also their validity in, and applicability to, all walks of life, especially the workplace.

Our study also has some important practical value. Many of the challenges of CCM can be alleviated by greater cultural understanding. An often neglected aspect in CCM is proverbs, which actually play a critical role in most cultures, including that of the Malays and Chinese in Malaysia. Executives who, for instance, are posted to Malaysia on expatriate assignments might wish to explore the proverbial collections of the major ethnic groups in the country to complement what they may read in popular books or see on television programmes. But CCM is of course a two-way street and for any project to succeed, both parties must buy into this view. Therefore, Malaysian managers, who may be more familiar with a highly structured sense of the appropriate (especially in terms of interactions within the vertical management hierarchy), will need to approach their counterparts from other cultures with a freshness of view and an openness of mind if they are to trade across borders successfully. Ultimately, there is considerable commonality across cultures and religions, particularly in ethical terms, and thus if one seeks out these common views, the perceived difficulties in empathizing with people from other backgrounds (and thus undertaking CCM) may become slightly less daunting.

Before closing, we wish to underline the point made earlier that many ‘prescriptive’ (as opposed to ‘descriptive’) proverbs often represent an ideal to which an individual and/or society should aspire and thus do not always nor completely reflect hard reality. Malaysia’s 2016 corruption perception index, for example, does not paint a particularly pretty picture, even if there are many countries with lower scores (Transparency International, 2017). A well-known proverb warns that the fish rots from the head down, and thus it is imperative that such issues are addressed right from the top. Not only is this simply correct in an ethical sense, but failure to do so may have serious negative consequences when dealing with countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom, which have, respectively, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (1977, 1998) and the Bribery Act (2010) – both of which have ‘territorial reach’ for US and UK bodies into foreign jurisdictions, including Malaysia, of course.