Overview of alternative fuels with emphasis on the potential of liquefied natural gas as future marine fuel

Abstract

Economic and population growths are the most important drivers of growing global energy demand. They led to a rapid development of international seaborne trade and an increase in the number of global vessels. Air pollution from these ships is of great concerns and regulations are currently enforced since May 2005 by the International Maritime Organization to limit such pollution. In this study, we will first review the current global energy demand and its driving forces over next decades, second evaluate the existing alternative fuels that can be used as a bunker fuel to reach sustainability with relatively small changes in the existing marine propulsion options and finally focus on near-term solution, which has the potential for large-scale use. The different alternative fuels were compared in terms of several parameters such as availability, renewability, safety, cost, performance, economy and compliance with emission regulations. This comparison revealed that liquefied natural gas could be considered as the future replacement to the current marine bunker fuel. This conclusion has been further verified by comparing diesel engine with different powers when using both heavy fuel oil and liquefied natural gas. The engines were compared against fuel consumption, cost saving as well as emissions. Liquefied natural gas has proved to be better than heavy fuel oil due to fuel cost reduction by about 31% per year and decrease in emissions of SO_x, NO_x, CO₂ and particulate matter by about 98%, 86%, 11% and 96%, respectively. The resulted emissions from using liquefied natural gas were found to comply with the current International Maritime Organization regulations. Moreover, this article highlights the latest rules and regulations that govern the use of liquefied natural gas as marine fuel onboard ships.

Keywords

Alternative fuels natural gas eco-friendly fuel gas emission marine engineering

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Kołwzan

Narewski

. Study on alternative fuels for marine applications. Clean Shipp Curr 2012; 1(3): 1–43.

Eyring

Isaksen Ivar

Berntsen

. Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: shipping. Atmos Environ 2010; 44(37): 4735–4771.

Norwegian Maritime Technology Research Institute. Second IMO GHG Study 2009. Technical report, http://www.imo.org/blast/blastDataHelper.asp?data_id=27795&filename=GHGStudyFINAL.pdf (2009).

Eide

Dalsøren

Endresen

. Reducing CO₂ from shipping—do non-CO₂ effects matter? Atmos Chem Phys 2013; 13: 4183–4201.

Bui

. Machinery concepts and LNG for meeting IMO Tier III rules. Wartsila Tech J: InDetail 2011; 1:31–38.

Levander

. Handy size LNG cruise ship concept. Wartsila Tech J: InDetail 2011; 1:44–51.

Stuer-Lauridsen

Odgaard

Winter Graugaard

. Natural gas for ship propulsion in Denmark: possibilities for using LNG and CNG on ferry and cargo routes. Danish Ministry of the Environment; Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Project no. 1338, October 2010.

Banawan

El-Gohary

Sadek

. Environmental and economical benefits of changing from marine diesel oil to natural-gas fuel for short-voyage high-power passenger ships. Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 2010; 224(2): 103–113.

United Nations—Department of Economic and Social Affairs—Population Division. World population prospects—the 2012 revision, key findings and advance tables. New York: United Nations—Department of Economic and Social Affairs—Population Division, 2013.

10.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Review of maritime transport. New York; Geneva: UNCTAD, 2012.

11.

U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). International energy outlook 2013. DOE/EIA-0484, July 2013. Washington, DC: EIA.

12.

Bentley

. Global oil and gas depletion: an overview. Energ Policy 2002; 30(3): 189–205.

13.

Goldemberg

. The promise of clean energy. Energ Policy 2006; 34(15): 2185–2190.

14.

Thomas

. Fuel quality related to un-seaworthiness. Trans Inst Mar Eng C 1996; 108: 81–84.

15.

Lin

. Compliance with international emission regulations: reducing the air pollution from merchant vessels. Mar Policy 2006; 30(3): 220–225.

16.

Gritsenko

Yliskylä-Peuralahti

. Governing shipping externalities: Baltic ports in the process of SO_x emission reduction. Marit Stud 2013; 12: 10.

17.

Frederick

Amokeye

. LNG as marine fuel. In: The 17th international conference and exhibition on liquefied natural gas, Gas Technology Institute (GTI). Energy Learning Center: Houston, TX, 16–19 April 2013.

18.

DNV Report, Joint Industry Project. LNG fuel bunkering in Australia: infrastructure and regulations. Public version of partners’ internal report, project no. PP033420, report no. CTC_R_2012038, DET NORSKE VERITAS PTE LTD, Clean Technology Centre, 20 January 2013.

19.

Markku

. International and EU regulations with regards to lower sulphur emissions: EMSA’s involvement in promoting the use of LNG as fuel. European Harbour Masters’ Committee (EHMC) seminar, Bremen, April 17th, 2013

20.

Woodyard

. Pounder’s marine diesel engines and gas turbine. 8th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004.

21.

EPA. Regulatory impact analysis: control of emissions of air pollution from category 3 marine diesel engines. Chapter 4: technological feasibility, EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), USA. December 2009.

22.

Buhaug

Corbett

Endresen

. Second IMO GHG Study. London: International Maritime Organization (IMO), 2009.

23.

Ariana

Nishida

Fujita

. Removal of marine diesel particulate matter by electrostatic precipitator. ICESP X—Australia, paper 4A2, http://www.isesp.org/ICESPXPAPERS/PDFS/Paper4A2.pdf (2006).

24.

El-Wakil

. Powerplant technology. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1988.

25.

Kalligeros

Zannikos

Stournas

. An investigation of using biodiesel/marine diesel blends on the performance of a stationary diesel engine. Biomass Bioenerg 2003; 24(2): 141–149.

26.

Bari

Ameen

. A comparison of combustion characteristics of waste cooking oil with diesel as fuel in a direct injection diesel engine. Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 2002; 216(3): 237–243.

27.

MacLean

Lave

. Evaluating automobile fuel/propulsion system technologies. Prog Energ Combust 2003; 29(1): 1–69.

28.

Randall von Wedel. Technical Handbook for Marine Biodiesel in Recreational Boats. CytoCulture International, Inc. Point Richmond, CA. Second Edition. April 22, 1999. Marine Biodiesel and Education Project for San Francisco Bay and Northern California. Prepared for the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. U.S. Department of Energy.

29.

Gielen

Unander

. Alternative fuels: an energy technology perspective. Head of Publications Service, http://s3.amazonaws.com/zanran_storage/www.iea.org/ContentPages/26160780.pdf (2005).

30.

Per Westling. Methanol- A good alternative for ferries and short sea shipping. In: Interferry 38th annual conference, Malta, 5–9 October 2013.

31.

Kumar

Kwon

Choi

. LNG: an eco-friendly cryogenic fuel for sustainable development. Appl Energ 2011; 88(12): 4264–4273.

32.

British Petroleum (BP). Statistical Review of World Energy, www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/statistical-review/statistical_review_of_world_energy_2013.pdf (2013, accessed 5 August 2013).

33.

El-Gohary

. The future of natural gas as a fuel in marine gas turbine for LNG carriers. Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 2012; 226(4): 371–377.

34.

Morsy El Gohary

El-Sherif

H.A.

, 2006. Future of hydrogen as green energy in marine application. 9th World Renewable Energy Congress. Florence, Italy. August 2006, Elsevier.

35.

El-Gohary

Saddiek

. Utilization of alternative marine fuels for gas turbine power plant onboard ships. JNAOE 2013; 5: 21–32.

36.

El-Gohary

. Overview of past, present and future marine power plants. J Mar Sci Appl 2013; 12: 219–227.

37.

Radwan

Morsy

Elbadan

. Economical and environmental advantages of using NG as a fuel in inland water transport. In: 25th CIMAC conference, CIMAC. International Council on Combustion Engines: Vienna, 2007, paper no. 114.

38.

Harsema

. LNG fuel tank container: a new approach to LNG bunkering. Chicago, IL, September, 2013. Marine Service GmbH, http://hhpsummit.com/pdfs/HHP2013Presentations/BO2-1Ma/3Harsema-Mensonides.pdf

39.

Andersen

Clausen

Sames

. Costs and benefits of LNG ship fuel for container vessels. Hamburg: Germanischer Lloyd, 2011.

40.

Levander

. Dual fuel engines latest developments. Technical report, Wärtsilä Company, Concept design, Hamburg, 27 September, http://www.ship-efficiency.org/onTEAM/pdf/PPTLevander.pdf (2011, accessed 20 December 2013).

41.

SENES Consultants Limited and Air Improvement Resource, Inc. Review of methods used in calculating marine vessel emission inventories. Report prepared for Environment Canada, Pollution Data Branch, Gatineau, QC, Canada, March 2004.

42.

California Air Resources Board. Emissions estimation methodology for ocean-going vessels, http://www.arb.ca.gov/regact/marine2005/appd.pdf (2005).

43.

Gerilla

Kardi

Kazunori

. Environmental assessment of international transportation of products. J East Asia Soc Transp Stud 2005; 6: 3167–3182.

44.

Bengtsson

Andersson

Fridell

. A comparative life cycle assessment of marine fuels liquefied natural gas. Proc IMechE Part M: J Engineering for the Maritime Environment 2011; 225(2): 97–110.

45.

Tawfek

. Environmental aspects of natural gas application in inland water transportation. Alex Eng J 2005; 44(5): 705–713.

46.

Balaon

Lowell

Curry

. Natural gas for marine vessels. Technical Report, American Clean Skies Foundation, Washington, DC, April 2012.

47.

Deal

. Liquefied natural gas as marine fuel a closer look at Tote’s containership projects. NEPI working paper, National Energy Policy Institute, USA, 13 June 2013.

48.

Nylund

. Field experience with the Wärtsilä 50 dual–fuel engine. In: Proceedings of the 25th CIMAC World Congress on Combustion Engines, Vienna, Austria, 21–24 May 2007. paper no. 239.

49.

Levander

Sipila

. LNG auxiliary power in port for container vessels. Wartsila Tech J: InDetail 2008; 2:42–47.

50.

International Maritime Organization (IMO). Draft revised International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk—(IGC Code). SUB-COMMITTEE ON BULK LIQUIDS AND GASES, 17th session, Agenda item 9, IMO, 6 June 2012.

51.

International Maritime Organization (IMO). Interim guidelines on safety for natural gas fuelled engine installations in ships. Annex 11, RESOLUTION MSC.285(86), IMO, Adopted on 1 June 2009.

52.

Germanischer Lloyd (GL). Study on standards and rules for bunkering of gas-fuelled ships. Final report prepared by GL for the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA). GL, Report no. 2012.005, Version 1.1, March 2013.

53.

ISO 28460:2010. Petroleum and natural gas industries—installation and equipment for liquefied natural gas—ship-to-shore interface and port operations. 1st ed.

54.

International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP). Guidelines for systems and installations for supply of LNG as fuel to ships. Interntional Association of Oil and Gas Producers, London, UK. OGP Draft 118683, 4 June 2013.

55.

IEC 60092-502:1999. Electrical installations in ships—part 502: tankers—special features. 5th ed., February 1999.

56.

IEC 60079:2012. Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres (36 parts; Available as BS EN 60079 from BSI, Milton Keynes, UK, or from the IEC, Geneva).

57.

IEC 61508:2005. Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related systems (7 parts; Available as BS EN 61508 from BSI, Milton Keynes, UK, or from the IEC, Geneva).

58.

SIGTTO. Ship to ship transfer guide (liquefied gases). 2nd ed. London, Witherby & Co. Ltd, 1995. (ISBN 1-85609 082 5)

59.

Det Norske Veritas (DNV). Modalities for the provisioning of LNG as shipping fuel in Flemish Ports. Part II: legal and regulatory. Report no. /DNV REG no.: 13YB7C6–3, REV 2, 10 July 2012.

60.

Det Norske Veritas (DNV). DNV rules for classification of ships/high speed, light craft and naval surface craft. Part 6/Chapter 13: gas fuelled ship installations, DNV, Høvik, July 2013.

61.

Germanischer Lloyd (GL). GL rules and guidelines. Section VI: additional rules and guidelines. Part 3/Chapter 1: guidelines for the use of gas as fuel for ships, GL, Hamburg, May 2010.