Characteristics of Effective International School Teachers: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Abstract

Qualities of effective teachers matter because teachers are the number one school-related factor that impacts on student achievement. Although researchers in the United States have studied frameworks for evaluating teacher effectiveness, these frameworks are not focused on teachers working in international schools. Thus, they may not reflect the importance of understanding both the context of working in intercultural settings and the skills that allow teachers to flourish in international schools. Using a systematic configurative synthesis review of 23 studies, this study identifies qualities of effective teachers working in international schools through a synthesis of the study findings. We identified four key attributes that are emphasized, if not unique, in international school effective teacher research: a focus on teacher collaboration and teacher leadership; cultural awareness and responsiveness from multi-national perspectives; and host country language acquisition. Overall, we find that a focus on what makes an effective international school teacher is lacking in the extant research, particularly given the predicted enormous growth of international schools.

Keywords

international school teacher systematic review teacher effectiveness teaching and learning

Understanding the behaviors, skills, and dispositions of effective teachers is crucial to helping improve schools and student success. Decades of research across the world provides evidence that teachers have a tremendous impact on student outcomes (see, for example, Aaronson et al, 2007; Chetty et al, 2013; Stronge et al, 2011; Kyriakides & Charalambous, 2021; Scheerens & Bosker, 1997; Witter & Hattie, 2023). These reviews and studies highlight the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of effective teachers. Additionally, global perspectives inform the concept of effective teaching within national systems for teachers who teach in both government-supported and independent schools (Grant et al, 2021). In many countries, there are also a number of independent international schools that may serve children from surrounding communities and/or of expatriate families who are living in the host country on a temporary basis. These schools often have a globally diverse student body, teaching faculty, and administration.

The number of international schools has grown enormously in recent years. According to ISC Research, since July 2012 the number of international schools worldwide has grown by 60%, from 8,246 schools in 2012 to 13,180 schools as of July 2022. During this time, the number of international school students has increased from 3.85 million in 2012 to 5.89 million in 2022 and the number of staff has grown from 356,487 to 571,228 (ISC Research, 2022). These numbers are projected to continue increasing substantially in the coming years. By 2030, it is estimated that there will be 19,200 international schools with a total of around 11.1 million students and 1 million staff (ISC Research, 2020). It is within this context of projected growth, and the uniqueness of the international school context, that we sought to examine the characteristics and qualities of effective teachers in international schools through a systematic review of research studies.

Effective Teachers Research

Conceptual Framework for Effective Teaching

While many studies have focused on examining the impact of effective teaching, our interest is in what effective teachers do in the classroom and what they believe about teaching. In this present systematic review, our interest is in the international school context. To guide our examination, we used Stronge’s six qualities of effective teachers (2002, 2018) as our conceptual framework. Synthesizing findings of studies on teacher effectiveness that were conducted across several decades, Stronge’s (2002, 2018) framework includes six domains of teacher qualities: 1) prerequisite professional knowledge, 2) instructional planning, 3) instructional delivery, 4) assessment, 5) learning environment, and 6) professionalism (which includes teacher dispositions). Stronge’s framework has been validated by a number of studies as reflecting a sound conception of teacher effectiveness (eg Stronge et al, 2011; Fulton, 2019; Maniglia, 2017; Schoenlank, 2017; Williams, 2010) and has been used globally to examine teacher effectiveness in Turkey (Keser, Altan & Lane, 2022), China (Liu, Meng & Kong, 2022), Malaysia (Hamdan & Lai, 2015), and Pakistan (Akram, 2019).

To facilitate further content validation of the framework, we compared the Stronge framework with two other frameworks. Caena (2014) conducted a review of European frameworks across countries and cultures and identified common core competencies, while Zhu et al (2019) provide a framework in the Chinese educational context. Additionally, we analyzed Stronge’s framework relative to the InTASC standards – standards that have emerged as influential guidance for policy and practice for teacher effectiveness in both teacher preparation programs and preK-12 schools across the United States and internationally (Council of Chief State School Officers, 2013). The InTASC standards have been identified by NAFSA: Association of International Educators as a cohesive and comprehensive set of standards for teaching (NAFSA, 2023). Table 1 provides a comparison between InTASC standards, Stronge’s US framework (2002, 2018), Caena’s European framework (2014), and Zhu et al’s Chinese framework (2019).

Table 1.

Crosswalk of Selected Teacher Effectiveness Frameworks.

Professional Standards Framework(InTASC, 2013 endorsed by NAFSA, 2023)	US Framework(Stronge, 2002, 2018)	European Framework(Caena, 2014)	Chinese Framework(Zhu et al, 2019)
Standard 1: Learner Development Standard 4: Content Knowledge Standard 5: Application of Content	Professional knowledge	Knowledge and theoretical frameworks for teaching and learning	Professional knowledge
Standard 7: Planning for Instruction	Instructional planning		Professional skills
Standard 2: Learning DifferencesStandard 8: Instructional Strategies	Instructional delivery	Teaching repertoire	Professional skills
Standard 6: Assessment	Assessment	Assessment	Professional skills
Standard 3: Learning Environment	Learning environment	Classroom teaching and management skills	Professional skills
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical PracticeStandard 10: Leadership and Collaboration	Professionalism	Commitment to innovation, professional development, collaboration, diversity and inclusion	Value orientation and moralityProfessional beliefs

Method of Review

To begin, we conducted a systematic review to identify empirical research related to effective teachers in international schools using Zawacki-Richter et al’s (2020) process for systematic reviews in educational research. We developed our research focus, selected a conceptual framework as described in the previous section, developed a search strategy, constructed selection criteria, selected studies using the selection criteria, coded the selected studies using our conceptual framework, and synthesized our findings.

Search Strategy

We searched three types of databases for the review: 1) academic databases, including Education Research Complete, Academic Search Complete, APA PsycInfo, Bibliography of Asian Studies, ERIC, MLA International Bibliography with Full Text, SocINDEX with Full Text, and Teacher Reference Center; 2) ProQuest to include doctoral dissertations and theses; and 3) GoogleScholar. Together, these databases provided a comprehensive range of sources for studies representing the specific focus of international school teacher effectiveness. Key search terms included teacher effectiveness and international schools. We used teacher effectiveness as the primary search term. Although researchers have not fully coalesced around this term, we found it to represent the focus of this study more completely than other possibilities.

It is interesting to note that the foci in the field of research related to teachers’ work and teacher effectiveness has changed periodically. In the most recent decades, this body of research most prominently has followed a process-product model with an emphasis on teacher effects. Indeed, Kyriakides and Charalambous explain:

During the last 40 years, researchers in the field of EER [educational effectiveness research] have focused their interest on examining teacher behaviour as an important predictor of student achievement in order to build up a knowledge-base on effective teaching, while over time combining newer theories into their models. (2021: 87)

By teacher effectiveness, we intentionally did not narrowly define the term to mean exclusively or even primarily a connection between teacher work and student achievement measures. Rather, we chose to include a broader definition that includes a myriad of forms and related terms as long as the meaning was about the quality and effective work that teachers do. Thus, we applied this broader use of teacher effectiveness to our study in an attempt to uncover relevant research conducted in international schools. Additionally, we delimited the search to peer-reviewed articles or doctoral dissertations or theses written in English and published between 2000 and 2022 as we were interested in the most current two decades of research. This search strategy resulted in 128 publications retrieved from the academic databases, 158 from ProQuest, and 286 from Google Scholar, representing a total of 572 retrieved unique publications.

Selection Criteria

After this initial search, selection criteria for inclusion in the review included peer-reviewed articles that reported findings on empirical studies and articles that addressed teacher effectiveness directly or indirectly. In some cases, teacher effectiveness served as the targeted variable or theoretical framework of the study. In other cases, the study focused on a particular aspect of teacher effectiveness identified from our conceptual framework, or had findings that represented teacher effectiveness regardless of whether that was the study’s purpose or aim. Second, the publication had to represent empirical research and findings. Therefore, conceptual and theoretical publications were excluded from our review. Finally, studies had to be conducted within international schools, meaning that government-run schools, or schools that were independent but without an international focus, were excluded. In the case of our study, international schools were defined as independent schools using an international curriculum or focused on international learning, rather than simply schools in inter- or trans-national settings. Based on these criteria, three relevant studies were selected from the academic databases. An additional 15 were selected from ProQuest, and five from GoogleScholar. As seen in Figure 1, this systematic review identified and represented 23 relevant studies.

Figure 1.

Narrowing of Selected Publications Based on Identified Criteria.

The selected studies had been conducted in a variety of countries, including Israel, Canada, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, and numerous Asian countries including South Korea, Thailand, China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Philippines, Japan, Taiwan, and Mongolia. Furthermore, the earliest publication date for our selected studies was 2008, with only two published between 2008 and 2010, six published between 2011 and 2015, 14 published between 2016 and 2020, and one published in 2021. We reviewed databases back to the year 2000 to ensure all peer-reviewed research for the last two decades was included. Nonetheless, the earliest studies that emerged from the databases searched were published in 2008. We concluded the study in 2022 which was the year this systematic review was conducted.

Coding

After selecting our studies for the review, we conducted three rounds of coding. In the first round, in reading the 23 studies three reviewers independently used the six qualities of effective teachers from Stronge’s (2018) framework as a priori codes. Specifically, within each identified study we identified instances representing professional knowledge, instructional planning, instructional delivery, assessment, learning environment, and professionalism. Following this deductive coding, each reviewer re-read the study publications, inductively identifying instances representing effective teachers through an emergent coding process. In total, 90 codes emerged from the reviewed publications. In the third round of coding, all three reviewers worked together to identify patterns and to summarize and synthesize all 90 codes into themes (Saldaña, 2021).

Findings

From our coding process, nine themes emerged to include professional knowledge; instructional planning; instructional delivery; assessment of/for learning; professionalism; learning environment; teacher collaboration and teacher leadership; cultural awareness and responsiveness; and language familiarity and acquisition. Table 2 shows the initial nine themes that emerged across the 23 studies.

Table 2.

Nine Themes in Synthesis of Findings.

Authors		Professional knowledge	Instructional planning	Instructional delivery	Assessment	Learning environment	Professionalism	Teacher leadership and teacher collaboration	Cultural awareness and responses	Language familiarity and acquisition
1	Augustine 2020			x			x
2	Brennan 2018				x
3	Carter 2020								x
4	Chun et al 2015	x				x			x
5	Cooker et al 2018		x
6	Eagles 2015							x	x
7	Geshel 2017				x		x
8	Gray 2020						x	x	x
9	Grigoraskos 2018					x	x	x
10	Goudzwaard 2012							x
11	Holden 2017					x
12	Johnson 2021					x	x	x
13	Josephson 2019							x
14	Lagace et al 2016	x
15	Lee 2017					x				x
16	Linton 2013	x				x	x	x
17	Martin 2010			x		x	x	x
18	McGavran 2013		x		x	x	x	x
19	Park 2011	x					x	x
20	Peterson 2017		x			x
21	Snowball 2008	x	x				x	x	x	x
22	Yeigh et al 2020							x
23	Zerbe 2018	x				x	x	x
Total		6	4	2	3	10	11	13	5	2

Alignment of Identified Qualities with Stronge’s Framework

We found six qualities aligned with Stronge’s (2018) framework. Figure 2 shows the alignment, suggesting a substantial overlap with extant research on effective teachers in other teaching contexts. The overlapped qualities include Professional Knowledge, a combination of Instructional Planning, Instructional Delivery and Assessment, Learning Environment, and Professionalism.

Figure 2.

The Alignment of Identified Qualities with Stronge’s (2018) Framework.

Professional Knowledge

In Stronge’s (2018) framework, each effective teacher quality is defined and explained in detail. Professional knowledge is defined as:

the teacher’s understanding of the curriculum, subject content, and students’ developmental needs as demonstrated by providing relevant learning experiences. In addition, teachers should have acquired and demonstrated a set of accumulated competencies and experiences before they ever walk through the schoolhouse door. (2018: 15)

Professional knowledge includes content knowledge (subject matter knowledge), pedagogical knowledge (knowledge about teaching), pedagogical content knowledge (specific knowledge about certain disciplines), and cultural competence (knowledge of students).

Table 2 shows that six out of 23 reviewed publications emphasized professional knowledge. Researchers claimed that teachers in international schools need to have subject knowledge (Chun et al, 2015), pedagogical knowledge, and skills (Chun et al, 2015; Cooker et al, 2018; Lagace et al, 2016; Linton, 2013; Zerbe, 2018), and acknowledgement of the complexity of content (Park, 2011). Additionally, some researchers identified other important skills and knowledge for international school teachers, such as cultural sensitivity, diverse learning styles, different approaches to assessment, knowledge of the world, knowledge of the host country’s language, and so forth.

For instance, Snowball (2008) investigated 163 international school teachers and synthesized 15 traits, knowledge, and skills for such teachers, which include (1) ability to differentiate teaching for diverse learning styles, (2) equal opportunities awareness, (3) gender sensitivity, (4) cultural sensitivity, (5) transition sensitivity, (6) adaptable classroom management style, (7) efficient student assessment, (8) information & communication technology proficiency, (9) pedagogical understanding (how students learn), (10) subject knowledge with a world view, (11) language acquisition and development, (12) open to new ideas and multiple perspectives, (13) independence, (14) calm and patient in dealing with different systems, and (15) financial astuteness. Most of the traits are about generic knowledge and skills reflective of teachers within any context, while others may be particular to international school teachers, particularly necessary to adapt themselves to the host countries, such as financial astuteness.

Researchers in another study (Lagace et al, 2016) also claimed that international school teachers need generic knowledge and skills, such as adaptability, open-mindedness, willingness to change, ability to collaborate, and ability to deal positively with critical feedback. In addition, they need to have supplemental professional knowledge and skills, such as cross-cultural competence, knowledge of different approaches to assessment, ability to teach in a second language environment, and familiarity with different curricular systems such as the International Baccalaureate. Cooker et al (2018) analyzed the narratives of eight educators across a diverse range of international school contexts, and suggested that international educators need to understand the world around them through accessing core knowledge about the world (Cooker et al, 2018).

In summary, in addition to professional knowledge that is expected of all teachers regardless of context, teachers in international schools also need to have some core professional knowledge specific to international teachers, such as cross-cultural knowledge, knowledge of the host country’s language, knowledge about the world, and a world view.

Instructional Planning, Instructional Delivery, and Assessment

Instructional planning, instructional delivery, and assessment are three separate qualities in Stronge’s (2018) framework. However, in the systematic review, we combine them into one quality because inadequate relevant evidence in each aspect is identified in the reviewed studies. Therefore, we structured them into a unified set of attributes related to the core of the teaching and learning process: planning, instruction, and assessment.

‘Instructional planning refers to the process a teacher engages in while planning and structuring learning activities to meet the needs of all students using the state’s standards, the school’s curriculum, data, and appropriate strategies and resources’ (Stronge, 2018: 54).

Instructional planning deals with three key issues: what to teach, how to teach, and how we know the students have learned. In total, only four out of 23 publications focused on instructional planning. Three of the studies focused on curriculum as it relates to instructional planning: curriculum implementation, curriculum design, and autonomy in writing curriculum. These studies did not focus on daily or weekly instructional planning in designing lessons. For instance, in investigating 163 international teachers, Snowball (2008) concluded that the curriculum in international schools must be internationalized, suggesting teachers implement international systems throughout the curriculum and the curriculum can help teachers make international perspectives implicit and explicit in everything they do. In Peterson’s (2017) study of the Bible curriculum in an overseas Christian international school, results showed that students preferred a Bible curriculum to be more interdisciplinary in nature rather than a stand-alone Bible course. Thus, the author suggested teachers integrate the Bible curriculum into their own subject areas in curriculum design. And one educator in the narratives of eight educators analyzed by Cooker et al (2018) expressed a positive attitude toward teacher autonomy in writing curricula in international schools:

I was able to teach ‘lessons’ completely free of classroom walls, and I was unrestricted by any established curriculum – because I wrote the curriculum myself, based entirely on where we were, which was the ultimate goal of our school before committing to the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program. (2018: 144)

One study identified was partially relevant to instructional planning. McGavran (2013) investigated 226 teachers’ perceptions of the extent to which their schools are engaged in educational effectiveness factors in an international Christian school located outside of the United States (actual school location was not identified by the author). Some of the effectiveness factors identified in the study are about instructional planning: (1) planning specific types of knowledge, content presenting forms, distinctions between skills and process, (2) organizing examples into categories, and (3) engaging students in projects. However, the research focus was not on how teachers plan instruction but on teachers’ perceptions of the extent of their schools’ engagement in school effectiveness factors, such as instructional planning.

‘Instructional delivery refers to a teacher’s use of a variety of research-based instructional strategies relevant to the content area to engage students in active learning, promote key skills, and meet individual learning needs’ (Stronge, 2018: 92). Instructional delivery involves using a variety of instructional strategies to teach, differentiating instruction, personalizing learning, communicating high expectations to students, promoting complex and higher-order thinking, using high-quality questioning, supporting student engagement in learning, and so forth.

Evidence of instructional delivery, particularly instructional strategies, is rarely identified in the reviewed articles. Only one study focused on instructional delivery with a focus on delivery of a religious curriculum. In that study, Peterson (2017) investigated grade 12 international school student perceptions of the teachers’ instructional delivery of the Bible curriculum at a Christian international school in Asia. The results showed that teachers could engage students through various approaches, such as providing authentic learning opportunities, using effective instructional communication, and helping students develop personal connections to the content. Two other studies mention an aspect of instructional delivery. For instance, Snowball (2008) listed differentiating teaching for diverse student learning styles as one of the fifteen traits of international school teachers, while Augustine (2020) investigated 16 teachers from one international school in Southeast Asia and found that students benefited academically and personally from direct instruction regarding social and emotional learning competencies.

‘Assessment refers to the process in which a teacher systematically gathers, analyzes, and uses relevant student data to measure student progress, guide instructional content and delivery methods, and provide timely feedback to students, parents, and stakeholders’ (Stronge, 2018: 135). Assessment involves the alignment between assessment with curriculum and instruction, using assessment data to inform instructional decisions and meet student needs, providing meaningful, constructive, timely, and objective feedback, and optimizing homework.

Evidence about assessment in the reviewed publications was also sparsely identified—only two studies focused on assessment. Brennan (2018) studied student development after using student-led assessment in an English curriculum international school in Malaysia. The results showed that students benefitted from the student-led assessment as they became more confident and motivated. Additionally, they could more accurately understand and explain their progress, predict their grades, and explain the uses and importance of assessment as learning. In another study, McGavran(2013) investigated teachers’ perceptions of the extent of their schools’ engagement in school effectiveness factors, with one factor being feedback. However, the result is not closely related to teachers’ feedback on students’ learning.

To summarize, inadequate relevant evidence on instructional planning, instructional delivery, and assessment was identified in the reviewed articles. This finding provides evidence that few empirical studies have shed light on international schools’ instructional planning, delivery, and assessment. Therefore, our review is timely and worthy.

Learning Environment

‘Learning environment refers to a teacher’s abilities in governing the conditions, circumstances, and influences in the classroom that surround and affect the development and performance of students’ (Stronge, 2018: 179). The learning environment includes classroom management, disciplining students, and cultivating a positive and supportive learning environment. Ten out of the 23 reviewed publications focused on the learning environment, and the elements of the learning environment described in these publications are similar to the learning environment described in Stronge’s (2018) framework.

Specifically, the elements identified in the reviewed studies include creating a disciplinary and positive learning climate (Martin, 2010), being able to adapt or adjust to the environment with emotional regulation (Grigoraskos, 2018), creating a purposeful and supportive learning environment (Lee, 2017), creating the proper dynamic, authentic, and tolerant learning environment that allows for free thought and sharing without conflict (Peterson, 2017), building trust and good relationships with students (Chun et al, 2015; Johnson, 2021; Linton, 2013; Zerbe, 2018), making the classroom comfortable (Holden, 2017) and managing the classroom effectively (Chun et al, 2015), and setting high expectations for students and involving parents (McGavran, 2013).

This indicates that effective practices and beliefs about the learning environment in international schools are similar to beliefs and practices identified in Stronge’s (2018) framework. A supportive, positive, inclusive, and dynamic learning environment is the key in whatever educational context.

Professionalism

‘Professionalism encompasses key characteristics reflecting a teacher’s dispositioning, goals and purposes, and values and beliefs that directly affect teaching effectiveness’ (Stronge, 2018: 213). It involves caring about student well-being and success, fairness and respect, interactions with students, enthusiasm about teaching and promoting student motivation to learn, attitude toward teaching, reflecting practice, collaboration, and communication.

Eleven out of 23 reviewed publications described professionalism from different perspectives. Many of them focused on dispositions, including teacher self-efficacy (Augustine, 2020; Johnson, 2021; Zerbe, 2018), teacher personality (Martin, 2010), emotional intelligence (Grigoraskos, 2018), openness to new ideas and multiple perspectives, being reflective (Snowball, 2008), and self-reflection, growth mindset and self-critiquing (Zerbe, 2018).

For instance, Johnson (2021) conducted a survey to evaluate if teacher self-efficacy predicts teacher work engagement for expatriate teachers in international schools in China. Results showed there was a statistically significant predictive relationship between teacher self-efficacy and teacher work engagement. Specifically, teacher work engagement factors of emotional engagement and social engagement with students were the most predictive of the participants’ overall perceptions of self-efficacy. In addition, Zerbe (2018) studied the internal cognitive processes to develop, change, and strengthen international teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs. The results revealed that cognitive processes of self-reflection, self-regulation, cognitive flexibility, growth mindset, intentional positivity, reminding oneself of calling/commitment, and mental models of prior success and growth are catalysts to develop, change, and strengthen self-efficacy.

In addition to teacher dispositions, some researchers focused on teacher personality and intercultural competence. Martin (2010) tested the reliability of the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire (MPQ). The MPQ is a 91-item self-administered instrument that measures the five dimensions of (a) Cultural Empathy; (b) Open-mindedness (being open-minded towards out-group members and different cultural norms and values); (c) Emotional Stability (a tendency to remain calm in stressful situations); (d) Social Initiative (the courage to take actions and make things happen, to establish and make contacts in a new culture); and (e) Flexibility (the tendency to actively search out and explore new situations and experience them as a welcome challenge). The results showed that faculty with greater experience were more strongly associated with emotional stability. However, as experience increases, it is weakly correlated with cultural empathy, and increasing experience is inconsistently associated with open-mindedness and flexibility. Martin’s results suggest that the MPQ is limited in its ability to assess or predict an individual’s multicultural competence in international schools. The instrument was unable to discriminate between individuals who aspire to work in international schools and those who do not. In Snowball’s (2008) study of international school teachers’ traits, one of the 15 traits is being open to new ideas and multiple perspectives, and being reflective.

Professionalism is more about teachers’ values and beliefs towards teaching and students. Teachers’ self-efficacy, self-reflection, self-regulation, and open-mindedness are important aspects of professionalism. These elements of professionalism are reflected in the studies we reviewed.

Distinctive Qualities

In addition to alignment with Stronge’s framework, we identified four key attributes that are distinctive, if not unique, in international school effective teacher research, and that we discuss here in two groups/pairs due to the conceptual links between the individual qualities within the pairs: 1) teacher collaboration and teacher leadership; and 2) cultural awareness and responsiveness from multi-national perspectives, and host country language familiarity and acquisition.

Teacher Collaboration and Teacher Leadership

In our review we used Stronge’s framework as a priori codes in identifying elements of effective teaching studied. Additionally, we allowed for emergent codes to identify any elements that may be unique to the international school context. Based on the emergent codes, two themes emerged from our systematic review that represented key teacher behaviors. The findings from 12 of the studies reviewed suggest that these are crucial attributes.

The first of these emergent themes - teacher collaboration - includes collegiality (McGavran, 2013), clear communication (Eagles, 2015; Park, 2011), and understanding and respecting different teaching styles (Eagles, 2015). In practice, teacher collaboration can look like collaborative learning among educators, such as professional learning communities (Josephson, 2019), and collaborative planning of curriculum and lessons (Gray, 2020).

Secondly, teacher leadership was defined by our reviewed studies as teachers being meaningful individuals in the school, reflecting leadership qualities both inside the classroom with students and outside the classroom with colleagues. (Goudzwaard, 2012). This leadership between teachers and students is enacted when teachers model the role of emotions when learning (Grigoraskos, 2018) and model accepted adult behaviors and lifestyles (Linton, 2013). Teacher leadership also reflected teacher authority, where students cooperate in classroom tasks (Chun et al, 2015), as well as students being highly engaged (Linton, 2013).

Cultural Awareness, Responsiveness, and Host Country Language Familiarity and Acquisition

Cultural awareness and responsiveness, as well as host country language familiarity and acquisition, were prominent throughout most of the systematic review, with representation in seven studies. These two qualities were embedded in the rest of the components of teacher effectiveness identified earlier and are particularly important for the international schools context. In Snowball’s (2008) study of domains of knowledge and traits needed by international school teachers, the author concluded that multiculturalism and teaching in multilingual classrooms were key domains in international teacher effectiveness. Snowball recommended that these domains be part of teacher preparation programs or mandatory in continuous professional development.

Cultural Awareness and Responsiveness

Cultural awareness and responsiveness appeared in the literature in two forms, as a needed disposition or professional behavior of effective international teachers (see, eg, Snowball, 2008; Martin, 2010) and as a subcomponent of other elements such as instructional strategies (Gray, 2020), student and teacher relationships (Chun et al, 2015), and teacher collaboration (Eagles, 2015). Authors used a variety of terms when referring to cultural awareness and responsiveness; for instance, Snowball (2008) alluded to multiculturalism as the ability to employ strategies that facilitate the learning of culturally diverse students. Snowball further explained that multiculturalism in practice entails being sensitive to cultural differences and differentiating instruction (including student independent practice) to meet the needs of diverse learners in relation to intellectual, social and personal development. Additionally, Martin (2010) stated that successful and experienced international school teachers possess cultural empathy and open mindedness. Martin explained cultural empathy as the capacity to show interest in others and to accurately understand and reflect upon others’ ideas. Open mindedness was described by Martin as not being prejudiced against different cultural values and norms, and against others who belong to different groups.

Likewise, educators participating in Snowball’s study (2008) of essential knowledge and skills of international school teachers indicated that multiculturalism followed by open mindedness were among the most important traits. Snowball suggested that multiculturalism in international schools is complex in that international school teachers need to be aware of their own culture, previous work cultures, home country teaching culture, their current school’s culture, the culture and subcultures of the nation where the international school is located, and other expatriate teachers’ cultures. Teachers need multiculturalism to effectively adapt the curriculum, their instructional strategies, and assessment, as well as to deal with diverse parental expectations. Additionally, international school teachers should be aware of cultural issues affecting their students; for instance, how the differences between home culture and school culture might affect students’ identity and academic performance. Moreover, being open to new ideas and different perspectives allows international school teachers to effectively communicate with others.

Gray (2020) also discussed the significance of culturally relevant teaching (CRT) in a bilingual (Spanish/English) international school trying to improve English reading achievement. In order to support students with a culturally relevant approach, teachers first need knowledge about their students’ cultural background. According to Gray, teachers need to create a culturally relevant curriculum, incorporating culturally relevant texts that are developmentally appropriate and implementing culturally relevant teaching comprehension strategies before, during, and after reading (eg book-walks, vocabulary review, asking questions). Teacher participants in this study valued culturally relevant texts because these increased student engagement and student comprehension. Other recommended CRT strategies include focusing on higher-level thinking skills and providing students with scaffolding and remediation as needed.

Furthermore, international school teachers should be cross-culturally aware so that they can effectively teach the diverse students they often serve and effectively interact with their diverse colleagues (Eagles, 2015). Chun and colleagues (2015) documented the difficulties Chinese teachers had when working with students from Western cultures in an international school in Hong Kong due to the lack of cultural knowledge and skills. The Chinese teachers complained about not being able to effectively manage their classroom. Finding a balance between having a good relationship with students and exercising authority was challenging because of their lack of cross-cultural experience. Therefore, the researchers suggested that teachers receive training on culturally responsive teaching as well as training on different cultural connotations and beliefs of discipline and learning. Similarly, Eagles (2015) emphasized that training on cross-cultural awareness was required to improve teacher collaboration in international schools. Understanding the differences among teachers’ cultures, and educators’ teaching styles can improve teacher communication, which ultimately benefits students.

One study focused on how international schools’ leaders can address cross-cultural competence through offering appropriate professional development for new hires and existing faculty. Holden’s study (2017) provided an example of an effective teacher training program in which the school’s new international teachers received a comprehensive cultural orientation to ease their transition. The teachers’ cultural orientation program included Chinese cultural orientation (the school was located in China), and Korean cultural orientation because the majority of the student population was Korean. The cultural orientation also included language lessons to help teachers navigate their new environment. In addition, the school held a yearly training on understanding third culture kids (children who are raised in a culture different from that of their parents, or different from their country of origin).

Language Familiarity and Acquisition

Language familiarity and acquisition is two-pronged in the international schools context. First, teachers need knowledge about language acquisition and development so that they can support their students’ learning. International school students’ language skills in English (the language of most international schools) are not homogeneous (Lee, 2017), so teachers must differentiate instruction accordingly. Second, teachers need basic language skills in the host country’s language if they are to communicate with diverse stakeholders and navigate their new context. Holden (2017) highlighted the benefits of expatriate teachers acquiring the language of the host country. The international school teachers in Holden’s China-based research studied an intensive Chinese course for two weeks over the summer and one-on-one weekly lessons with a tutor throughout the school year. The teachers appreciated the language lessons because these were helpful not only at a professional level, but also at a personal level as the Chinese lessons eased their transition into the community.

Furthermore, Snowball (2008) stated that international school teachers need to be competent in teaching in multilingual classrooms. Thus, teachers should value students’ multilingualism and understand the process of language acquisition in first, second and subsequent languages. This competency entails welcoming all students’ languages for social and academic purposes, and planning for and facilitating learning opportunities (including assessment) tailored to students’ language proficiency levels. Snowball recommended that international school teachers be at least trained in world languages and important aspects of language learning such as dialects, accent and differences among languages’ syntactical structures. Additionally, international school teachers should develop a positive attitude towards multilingualism and acquire instructional strategies to facilitate learning in multilingual classrooms.

Lee’s (2017) study focused specifically on language acquisition of students. The researcher investigated international school teachers’ perceptions of effective English vocabulary instruction. In this study teachers noticed that the English language proficiency gap between English native speakers and English learners (ELs) was widening in their school. The gap originated from ELs’ lack of exposure to and prior knowledge of English. The low English proficiency was negatively affecting students’ reading, writing and communication abilities. Thus, teachers started explicit English vocabulary instruction. They expressed that teaching English vocabulary was challenging for them, especially aspects of word selection and words with multiple meanings. Teachers also had to consider effective vocabulary assessments to ensure that students were not just memorizing the new words taught to pass a test. The study results showed that there was a need for more scaffolding, meaningful context for language learning, comprehensible input, and a supportive and purposeful learning environment. Based on these findings, Lee created professional development for participant teachers with a focus on language acquisition, second language learning, vocabulary development, instructional strategies and assessment methods, and vertical alignment. The secondary purpose of the professional development was to support teacher collaboration.

Discussion

Why Consider Effective Teaching in Any School in Today’s World?

Without doubt, globalization poses new and demanding challenges to individuals and societies, and the role of schools in a competitive world continues to be a force for success or lack thereof. Teachers are central to success within any school or educational system. Indeed, after years of conducting international assessments of student achievement, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) concluded that ‘The quality of an education system depends on the quality of its teachers . . .’ (2018: 4). Further, consensus among researchers in the field is clear: Of all the school-related factors associated with student learning, the teacher has the most powerful, direct, and lasting impact on student success. In fact, the effects of effective teachers on student achievement ‘dwarf any improvements associated with educational programs or interventions’ (Stronge & Xu, 2017: 115). Thus, any discussion of the importance of schooling inevitably and understandably leads to a discussion on teachers and teaching: thus, the focus on teacher effectiveness and on the question of what makes a great teacher great. As Witter and Hattie explain, ‘Answers to this question have evolved significantly over the decades, as the knowledge base and research methods have grown in efforts to identify, measure and describe the characteristics, behaviours and outcomes of effective teachers’ (2023: 2).

While this topic of effective teaching has been considered and explored at least since the time of Plato, it remains a quintessential question of concern across time and geography. Nonetheless, a challenge to extending this line of research is identifying qualities and characteristics of effective teachers, particularly across global educational contexts. Our review begins to address this challenge and provides future directions for research in the international school context.

Why Consider Effective Teaching Attributes for International Schools?

Qualities for effective international school teachers are multifaceted. Working in an international school requires teachers to have knowledge and skills that extend beyond the Stronge (2018) framework. Figure 3 provides an emerging framework for knowledge, skills, and dispositions of effective international school teachers. As shown in Figure 3 and discussed in the findings, general qualities of maintaining professional knowledge, planning for instruction, effective delivery of instruction, assessing student learning, maintaining a positive learning environment, and professionalism are core to effective teaching and learning in the international school setting. Qualities specific to the international school context include the importance of teacher collaboration, teacher leadership, cultural awareness and responsiveness, and language acquisition. These specific qualities permeate through and are in concert with the general or core qualities.

Figure 3.

Emerging Framework of Effective International School Teachers.

This emerging framework has many potential uses. Teachers can expand their knowledge and skills in their work or take professional learning purposefully to develop these core and specific qualities. International school administrators’ understanding of the complexity of international schools is essential, as is providing teachers with more learning opportunities to encourage and support their professional learning or training. For pre-service teachers, universities could do more to offer relevant courses or integrate into extant courses a focus on diverse culture, foreign language, collaboration, and teacher leadership for students to learn. Pre-service teachers can also build such capacities through internships, exchange student programs, or other professional learning. Both in-service teachers and pre-service teachers need to be aware that teaching in an international school setting is different from teaching in non-international schools, and be prepared for cultural differences, language barriers, culturally-based student learning styles, and so forth.

The growth of international schools is rapid (ISC, 2022). However, research on teacher effectiveness in international schools has lagged in its development. With only 23 studies identified for inclusion in our review, we caution that there appears to be a paucity of research related to effective teaching in international schools. Furthermore, the geographic locations of the studies are limited. South America, Africa, and Europe are not represented in this sample of studies, as we were not able to locate studies from these regions. Additionally, 15 of the 23 studies identified were doctoral theses or dissertations, with only eight from peer-reviewed journal articles. Given the enormous growth anticipated in international school numbers, there is a need for more peer-reviewed, published research on the qualities, skills, and dispositions of effective teachers in this particular context. Of the six qualities of effective teaching, the core of teaching and learning was not well-represented in the studies we examined. Clearly, more research on instructional planning, delivery, and assessment in the international school context is needed.

Footnotes

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The author(s) received partial financial support from the William & Mary Reves Center for International Studies for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author biographies

Leslie W Grant, PhD is an Associate Professor in the School of Education at William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA.

James H Stronge, PhD is the Heritage Professor in the School of Education at William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA.

Paola Mendizabal, PhD is a Dual Language Instructional Specialist for Newport News City Public Schools in Newport News, Virginia, USA. She received her doctoral degree from the School of Education at William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA.

Amelie Smucker, PhD is an Assistant Professor in the School of Teacher Education and Leadership at Radford University, USA. She received her doctoral degree from the School of Education at William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA.

Yanping Mo, PhD is an English Instructor with the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Southwest Forestry University in Kunming, China. She received her doctoral degree from the School of Education at William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA.

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