Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in academic indicators among intramural sports participants and nonparticipants following their first year of college. Matched samples (N = 1,796; 898 pairs) were generated based on demographic variables. Data were obtained from university databases. Paired sample t tests and logistic regression were used to assess differences between participants and nonparticipants. First-semester and first-year grade point average were significantly higher (p < .001) for participants than nonparticipants. First-semester and first-year credit difference were significantly lower (p < .001) for intramural sports participants than nonparticipants. Participants were more than twice as likely to be retained than nonparticipants and 40% more likely to achieve sophomore status. Results suggest that freshmen students participating in intramural sports during their first year of college achieve greater academic success than nonparticipants.
Introduction
University administrators continually focus on student academic success, but not all learning takes place within the classroom on college campuses. Student affairs departments provide various programs and events for engagement and learning outside coursework, and these contributions are important for the development and success of students as a whole (Sandeen, 2004). One avenue of engagement that most universities provide are opportunities through recreational sports departments, and many choose to participate in intramural sports. With numerous options including team and individual activities, approximately 16.5% of students report participation in intramural sports (American College Health Association, 2017)
Within divisions of education and student affairs, there are many models to predict academic success; however, Astin’s Theory of Student Involvement and Tinto’s Model of Student Departure are most applicable within the context of recreational and intramural sports. Astin (1975) found that factors within the college environment that promote involvement were associated with student persistence, with one example being extracurricular activity participation. Intramural sports is one example of an extracurricular activity designed for students. Tinto’s (1999, 2006) Theory of Student Departure also centers on the student’s level of involvement with his or her university and the connection made to campus. For many, this connection is made within the first year of attendance, and Tinto’s (1999, 2006) theory dictates that the first year of college is extremely important for future academic success. Tinto’s theory supports the process of developing those habits within a contextual model of student involvement at a university, which can result in academic success because of integration into the campus community through intramural sports participation.
The recreational sports literature concerning student academic success have found some small, positive results but as a whole is limited by few studies which have included control for potential confounders. When considering other factors that can impact college student academic success, there are a multitude of variables outside of the classroom setting that may not be thought to affect coursework. Relationships have been found for many factors including demographic characteristics, health behaviors, and university characteristics, but research indicates that race, gender, socioeconomic status, and high school grade point average (GPA) appear to be the most reliable predictors (Renn & Reason, 2013).
Research concerning intramural sports participation and academic indicators of student success are minimal. Only one study was identified that examined relationships between intramural sports and indicators of academic success (McElveen & Rossow, 2014). McElveen and Rossow (2014) assessed intramural sports participation and first semester and first-year GPA and retention rates in freshmen students. The sample (N = 589) included only first time in college freshmen from the Fall 2010 semester and assessed differences between nonparticipants, students with moderate participation (one to three sports per semester), and students with high participation (four or more sports per semester). Usage and academic variables were collected from university databases. Results revealed no significant differences for GPA between participants at any frequency and nonparticipants of intramural sports at either the first semester, F(2, 586) = 1.669, p = .189, or first-year time points, F(2, 557) = 0.102, p = .903. However, significant differences were found for retention. At each time point, intramural sports participants had higher retention rates than nonparticipants: fall to spring (96.5% vs. 91.8%), spring to fall (82.7% vs. 80.5%), and fall to fall (79.8% vs. 73.9%). Strengths of this study include the assessment of an individual avenue of recreational sports participation, investigation of frequency of use, and utilization of university databases for variables of interest. However, adjustment for potentially confounding variables was not conducted. Other studies have assessed intramural sports as a part of total recreational sports programming and facility usage (Gibbison, Henry, & Perkins-Brown, 2011) or investigated outcomes of sense of community or belonging (Phipps, Cooper, Shores, Williams, & Mize, 2015; Sturts & Ross, 2013), time management (Sturts & Ross, 2013), self-confidence (Sturts & Ross, 2013), or physical health indicators (Simmons & Childers, 2013).
The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in GPA, credit difference (CD; credits attempted − credits completed), retention, and achievement of sophomore status between intramural sports participants and nonparticipants following their first year of college while accounting for potential confounding variables. It was hypothesized that participants of intramural sports would achieve higher GPAs, lower CD, be more likely to be retained, and more likely to achieve sophomore status following their first year.
Materials and Methods
Data were obtained through university databases at a large Midwestern public university. Participants included first-time freshmen students living on campus and were from the Fall 2013 and Fall 2014 cohorts (n = 13,652). Intramural sports data were obtained from the university recreation center IMLeagues database, a popular database management tool utilized by recreational sports departments on college campuses. Individuals were identified as participants if they had played in at least 1one intramural game each semester of their first year (n = 970; 7.1%). A matched sample of participants and nonparticipants was generated using the FUZZY matching, which is a Python extension command in SPSS statistics (SPSS, 2017).
The sample was matched on variables that have shown to impact academic success including age, race, gender, Pell grant eligibility, first-generation status, and high school GPA. Students were also matched based on their cohort. All variables were matched exactly, with the exception of high school GPA, which was matched within 0.25 GPA points. This slight variability was used to allow for a maximum number of matches to be generated within the sample. This process resulted in a final analytic sample of 1,796 students (898 matched pairs). Matching of study participants is a valid method used within epidemiological cohort studies (Costanza, 1995; de Graaf, Jager, Zoccali, & Dekker, 2011), and this method was adapted for effective use with the current data set.
Academic Variables
Academic variables were obtained from the university registrar and evaluated at the first-semester and first-year time points for GPA and CD. CD is the credits attempted by the student minus the credits completed by the student; therefore, a lower CD value indicates greater academic success for the student (i.e., fewer course credits dropped or failed). Retention and achievement of sophomore status were also evaluated at the 1-year time point. Students were considered to have been retained at the 1-year mark if they were enrolled in the fall semester following their first year. Students were considered having achieved sophomore status by university standards if they completed 28 or more credits prior to the fall semester following their first year.
Statistical Analyses
Means, standard deviations, and percentages were calculated for all variables of interest. Paired sample t tests were used to evaluate differences in GPA and CD between participants and nonparticipants of intramural sports. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the role of intramural sports participation on the odds of being retained and achieving sophomore status following the first year of college. Adjusted comparisons were not necessary as the generation of the matched sample allowed for control of confounding variables.
Results
The final analytic sample (n = 1,796, 898 pairs) had an average age of 19.5 ± 0.6 years, was primarily Caucasian (87.2%), male (77.7%), and from the 2014 cohort (73.4%). In addition, 4.6% of students were Pell grant eligible, 14.7% were first-generation college students, and the average high school GPAs for participants and nonparticipants were 3.71 ± 0.31 and 3.70 ± 0.30, respectively. See Table 1 for demographic variables.
Matched Sample Demographic Characteristics.
Note. GPA = grade point average; SD = standard deviation.
As shown in Table 2, first-semester cumulative GPA was significantly higher (p < .001) for participants (3.25 ± 0.66) than nonparticipants (3.09 ± 0.79). Likewise, first-year cumulative GPA (p < .001) was also significantly higher for participants (3.25 ± 0.63) than nonparticipants (3.07 ± 0.78).
Means ± SD for First-Semester and First-Year Cumulative GPA and Cumulative CD.
Note. CD = credit difference (credits attempted − credits completed); SD = standard deviation; GPA = grade point average.
aStatistically significant difference between participants and nonparticipants, p < .05.
First-semester cumulative CD was significantly lower (p = .001) for intramural sports participants (5.53 ± 6.99) than nonparticipants (6.63 ± 7.72). In addition, first-year cumulative CD (p < .001) was also significantly lower for participants (6.09 ± 7.13) than nonparticipants (7.70 ± 8.20).
Results also indicate that intramural sport participants were 2.3 times more likely to be retained after their first year (odds ratio [OR]: 2.32; 95% confidence interval [1.53, 3.51]) and 1.4 times more likely to achieve sophomore status following their first year (OR: 1.42; 95% confidence interval [1.11, 1.82]) than nonparticipants (Table 3). Additional parameter estimates can be found in Table 4. Figure 1 presents a summary of the major results.
Summary of major results. GPA = grade point average.
OR and 95% CI for 1-Year Retention and Achievement of Sophomore Status.
Note. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.
aStatistically significant based on 95% CI.
Additional Parameter Estimates for Logistic Regression Analyses for 1-Year Retention and Achievement of Sophomore Status.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in GPA, CD, retention, and achievement of sophomore status between intramural sports participants and nonparticipants following their first year of college. It was hypothesized that participants of intramural sports would achieve higher GPAs, lower CD, be more likely to be retained, and more likely to achieve sophomore status following their first year, and the results of this study supported these hypotheses. Intramural sports participants achieved higher GPAs at the first-semester and first-year time points than nonparticipants. Participants also had lower CD (i.e., dropped or failed fewer credits) than nonparticipants and were more likely to be retained and to achieve sophomore status following their first-year than nonparticipants.
Theories of student success, such as Astin’s Theory of Student Involvement and Tinto’s Theory of Student Departure, support these findings. Astin’s (1999) theory supports that student academic success is dependent on the connection and involvement a student has with his or her university. This theory centers on five basic postulates: (a) physical and psychological involvement or investment, (b) involvement is along a continuum, (c) involvement is quantitative and qualitative, (d) involvement quantity and quality is related to student learning and professional development, and (e) the capacity for student involvement is related to effectiveness of educational policy and practice (Astin, 1999). Intramural sports participation is both a physical and psychological investment of energy (Postulate 1); participation can occur at different levels on a continuous scale and it can be measured for level of involvement (Postulate 2); and we can quantify participation as well ask students to qualitatively give insight into the benefits of participation (Postulate 3). Tinto’s (1999, 2006) theory contains three stages for the integration of a student into the academic and social system of a university: separation, transition, and incorporation. As this process occurs, students separate from previous norms or beliefs that they had before entering the university community (Tinto, 1999). For some, sport, or physical activity participation may have been a norm and will continue to be a norm, indicating a low level of separation. Transition occurs as students move from previous beliefs and norms to the new beliefs and norms they are incorporating into their life as a college student (Tinto, 1999). It is also possible that students will develop new beliefs concerning sport as intramural sports programs can offer more opportunities and perhaps a less formal environment for competition.
Previous research concerning intramural sports participation and academic success is very limited with only one study identified that assessed academic indicators quantitatively. McElveen and Rossow (2014) also investigated differences between intramural sports participants and nonparticipants in first-year students. Their findings showed no differences in participant and nonparticipant GPAs, but a positive relationship for retention with intramural sports participants being more likely to be retained than nonparticipants (McElveen & Rossow, 2014). Results of this study conflict with that of McElveen and Rossow’s for GPA but agree with results for retention. A possible reason for this would be the lack of control for confounding variables in McElveen and Rossow’s study.
Overall, there were many strengths to the design of this study, but there were also some important limitations to consider. Strengths included a moderately large sample size, the use of objective measures for both exposure and outcome variables, and the development of a matched data set to control for potential confounding variables in relationships. Race, gender, socioeconomic status, and high school GPA are reliable predictors of student academic success (Renn & Reason, 2013). Therefore, we matched on all of these variables, plus the addition of first-generation college student status to further strengthen the methodology. Limitations include the cross-sectional nature of the study, limited presence of female, Pell grant eligible, and first-generation students in the sample, and the fact that these data only encompass one institution. In addition, frequency of participation was not assessed.
In conclusion, our results suggest that freshmen students participating in intramural sports during their first year of college achieve higher cumulative first-semester and first-year GPAs, have a lower first-semester and first-year cumulative CD, are more likely to be retained, and are more likely to achieve sophomore status following the first year than students who do not participate in intramural sports. With the limited data available in this area, the results of this study support the need for more research investigating relationships between intramural sports participation and academic success in college students. Theories of student success provide a framework that would explain possible associations between participation and greater student success through the variable of student involvement. The use of a matched data set based on variables that are known to influence academic success was a first step in controlling for other variables that could lead to greater academic success. Future studies should investigate outcomes beyond the first year, whether or not frequency of participation plays a role in these relationships, and explore the role that other factors known to contribute to academic success play in these relationships.
There are many practical implications of this study for student affairs professionals including providing information on intramural sports opportunities at orientation programs for students. In addition, given the low prevalence of female participants in intramural sports programs, promotional materials could be generated that are specific to female students as many universities offer coed and female only leagues.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Mr. Larry Long, Michigan State University Management Analyst (former), for assistance with retrieval of academic outcomes data from the University Registrar system. This work was supported by the Michigan State University Department of Recreational Sports and Fitness Services by providing participation data.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.