Anti-Racist Violence Prevention: Partnering With Black Youth to Identify Intervention Priorities

Abstract

In this study, academic researchers partnered with Black youth to engage in critical analysis of the intersection between racism and community violence to promote anti-racist social action that advances health equity. Through youth participatory action research, we examined perspectives and experiences of Black youth to develop a shared understanding of how to approach community violence prevention with an anti-racist lens. Thirteen youth from Kansas City and Atlanta who identified as Black or African American participated in a photovoice project to explore the intersection of racism and community violence. Youth generated photo assignments, took photos that reflected the assignment, shared their photos as a group, and chose one photo to explore in depth each week using a structured method to guide photo-discussion. Qualitative analysis of youth photo-discussions identified themes related to Black youth’s experiences of racism at multiple levels and identified suggestions for anti-racist interventions, including promoting Black history knowledge and nurturing Black mentoring relationships. Grounded in these findings, we propose an anti-racist approach to community violence prevention among Black youth that engages Black youth as equitable partners to build from their expertise and strengths in developing comprehensive solutions.

Keywords

community violence prevention Black youth photovoice youth participatory action research health equity

Background

Structural racism in the forms of residential segregation, concentrated poverty, and limited access to education and employment opportunities results in a disproportionate burden of community violence among Black youth (Burrell et al., 2021; Sheats et al., 2018). Black youth experience the highest rates of community violence exposure and violence-related injuries, with homicide being the leading cause of death for this population (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention et al., 2021). Recent data indicate the homicide rate for Black youth is 12.9 times higher than for White youth and aggravated assault was 7.2 per 1,000 people for Black youth compared with 5.1 per 1,000 for White youth (Sheats et al., 2018). Outcomes for survivors and witnesses of community violence include lower academic functioning, cognitive decline, psychological symptoms, and chronic health conditions (Busby et al., 2013; Voisin et al., 2016; Wright et al., 2017).

Despite the disproportionate burden of community violence and associated health inequities among Black youth, effective interventions are lagging (Voisin et al., 2016). There is a need for anti-racist approaches to community violence prevention that recognize and address structural racism as a root cause (Burrell et al., 2021; Wendel et al., 2021). In developing these approaches, it is critical we engage Black youth as partners to unpack and address the intersection of racism and community violence.

Youth participatory action research (YPAR) is a research process in which youth and adults work together to identify and address social problems (Anyon et al., 2018). YPAR engages youth in the processes of identifying intervention priorities and strategies (Lindquist-Grantz & Abraczinskas, 2020) and participating in decision-making to mitigate inequities (Anyon et al., 2018; Kennedy et al., 2019). Through these methods, YPAR can be employed to better understand youth experiences, improve youth outcomes, and influence youth environments (Ozer, 2017).

Study Purpose

To address the gap in anti-racist approaches to community violence prevention, this study engaged violence-exposed Black youth in critical analysis of racism and community violence as intersecting public health issues to identify priorities for social action to affect community and system change. Following YPAR principles, youth were engaged as equitable partners in photovoice to explore how racism and community violence intersect and affect Black youth in their community to inform community violence prevention that builds upon the strengths of their communities.

Method

Photovoice is an action-oriented research method in which participants document strengths and concerns of their community through photography, engage in critical discussion, and produce shared knowledge (Wang & Burris, 1997). This process creates an opportunity for community members to effect community- and institution-level changes (Hergenrather et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2000).

Setting and Participants

Youth participants were recruited from Youth Ambassadors (YA) in Kansas City, Missouri, and Boys and Girls Clubs of Metro Atlanta (BGCMA) in Atlanta, Georgia. We built on our ongoing partnership with YA—a community-based organization that utilizes a strengths-based approach to develop job and life skills among underserved youth (ages 14-18)—and our developing partnership with BGCMA—a trusted national organization with local sites in Metro Atlanta, focused on creating safe, inclusive, and engaging environments for youth. Both partners identified escalating community violence as a priority area for action and wanted to engage youth as part of the solution. Youth were required to be 13 to 18 years of age, identify their race as Black or African American, and have been exposed to community violence. We received 14 names of interested youth from BGCMA for the Atlanta group and consent from eight, with four continuing on to participate in the project. We requested 10 names of interested youth from YA for the Kansas City group; nine consented and participated. Challenges to recruitment included difficulty reaching some parents of interested youth and scheduling conflicts with photovoice sessions. Thus, we had 13 youth total—nine in Kansas City and four in Atlanta—who engaged in critical analysis of racism and community violence as intersecting public health issues.

Procedures

This study was approved by the Emory University Institutional Review Board. Research staff worked with youth-serving organization staff to identify interested youth. Recruitment strategies included informational videos, recruitment flyers, and word of mouth. Parents were asked to confirm (1) that their child(ren) identify as Black or African American and (2) that their child(ren) had been exposed to community violence. Community violence was described as violence that occurs between unrelated individuals in public spaces. Examples of community violence—such as gun violence, police brutality, and fights among groups—were given as needed. Virtual consent and assent processes were employed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Research staff contacted parents of interested youth via email and telephone to answer any questions about the study and obtain informed consent for their children to participate. Parents giving consent signed a secure electronic consent form and youth contact information was obtained. Mirroring the same process for parents, youth were contacted for their informed assent to participate.

Youth participated in four photovoice sessions: one orientation session, followed by three photo-discussion sessions. All sessions were 1.5 hours in length. The Kansas City group sessions were held in December 2020 and the Atlanta group sessions were held in March-April 2021. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all sessions were conducted virtually. Photo-discussions were audio-recorded for later qualitative analysis. Each participant received a US$20 electronic gift card per session.

Youth conceptualized photo-assignments related to the intersection of racism and community violence, and then took photos that reflected the assignment. Conceptualization of photo-assignments involved facilitators guiding youth through a reflection on how they experience racism and violence in their communities, and transforming these reflections into photo-assignment questions they wanted to explore. Youth without access to a camera or a smartphone with a camera were loaned a digital camera for the photovoice sessions. Youth were also given guidelines on photo etiquette and ethics (e.g., documenting permission of individuals whose faces were shown in photos). Youth presented their photos to their peers and facilitators during subsequent sessions and collectively chose one photo per session to discuss in depth. We employed SHOWED to structure photo-discussions (Wang, 2012). SHOWED asks a series of six questions to guide discussion: (1) What do you See here? (2) What’s really Happening here? (3) How does this relate to Our lives? (4) Why does this problem or strength exist? (5) How can we be Empowered by our new understanding? And, (6) what can we Do about this?

Photovoice sessions were followed by ongoing social action planning, conducted virtually. In these sessions, youth identified action priorities, received guidance to develop their ideas into program and policy solutions, and collaboratively decided upon immediate next steps.

Data Analysis

Audio-recordings of photo-discussions were transcribed verbatim and imported into qualitative data management software MAXQDA (VERBI Software, 2021). Thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) was conducted to analyze how racism and community violence intersect to impact youth in the community, and identify social action priorities to address these impacts. Three research staff conducted an initial round of inductive coding to identify codes connected to the primary aims of this study and co-developed a codebook. Each of the three researchers then independently applied the codebook to each transcript and met together on a weekly basis to compare coding for all transcripts. A limited number of discrepancies in coding occurred between coders; these were resolved through discussion as they arose. Review of initial coding with the principal investigator revealed that the codes fit into an anti-racist framework that included (1) multilevel conceptualizations of racism and (2) social action to oppose racism at multiple levels. A second round of analytic coding was then conducted by the three researchers to identify shared themes related to this anti-racist framework across photovoice groups.

Results

The Kansas City group included six youth who identified as female and three that identified as male. All four youth in the Atlanta group identified as male. Participants in the Kansas City group ranged in age from 14 to 17 with a mean age of 16 years, and in the Atlanta group ranged in age from 13 to 16 with a mean age of 14.5 years.

Youth photo-discussions across both groups yielded two main themes that were consistent with an anti-racist approach to community violence prevention: (1) acknowledging racism at multiple levels and (2) preventing violence with anti-racist interventions (Table 1). The latter theme included two subthemes related to mechanisms of anti-racist intervention: (1) promoting Black history knowledge and (2) nurturing mentoring relationships.

Table 1

Summary of Qualitative Themes From Photovoice Project on Community Violence Prevention Among Black Youth

Theme or subtheme	Description	Example quotes	Corresponding social action priority
Theme 1: Acknowledging Racism at Multiple Levels	Discussion of racism operating at multiple levels particularly historical, institutional, cultural, and internalized manifestations. Includes youth narratives of racism, discussion of cultural appropriation, discussion of the intersectionality of racism and gender inequality, and the intersection of these topics with community violence.	“To me I believe racism really started when Europeans started coming over here and they started looking for slaves instead of indentured servants.... I think when they started going to Africa and they see people with darker skin than them and in worse conditions than them I guess they got into their head that, “Oh, we’re better than them, so why should they be treated as equals?” And it has been taught from generation to generation.” “Some people aren’t treating other people the way how they’re supposed to be treated because of their gender. And that’s like a major problem along with racism. That’s happening now as well.”	• Recognize the legacy of racism and how it manifests in individuals, communities, and systems • Address cultural appropriation by promoting dialogue and expanding perspectives • Address internalized racism by promoting awareness of Black history and achievements
Theme 2: Preventing Violence with Anti-Racist Interventions
Subtheme 2.1: Promoting Black history knowledge	Discussion of expressing pride in Black history, the importance of protecting and preserving Black history, representation of Black history in education, and the responsibility of educating both oneself and others. Descriptions of institution- and policy-level interventions to improve knowledge and awareness of Black history.	“It’s not really enough information for us as Black people to learn what did we do? What did we make? What change did we make for the world? Like, you know, we have Black history day, but—I mean Black history month, but that’s a month. We’re not really getting taught everything. We’re just sporadically having history lessons when we really need that as a youth, as a generation, because that probably is a way that we could not really stop racism but have other people learn about how it’s affecting people. Because other people are just like, ‘Well, it’s not affecting me so I don’t really care,’ but in reality it really is. It’s affecting everybody.” “By knowing this is who I am, and this is where I come from. And if my people can go through what they went through back and. . .come out successful with what we did accomplish. . .then I’m unstoppable. Because if they can do all that then you can’t touch me!”	• Promoting Black history knowledge through community awareness raising, mentoring, and school policy and practice • Offering courses in Black history and culture taught by Black instructors • Erecting statues of Black historical figures to preserve and honor Black history
Subtheme 2.2: Nurturing Mentoring Relationships	Discussion of the importance of building relationships with mentors, role models, and peers. Includes discussion of the importance of relationships with Black male mentors and their contribution to community violence prevention.	“Really it all starts with the environment that you’re in. ‘Cause if you’re in a like rough environment, then it may not encourage you to go outside and talk to people; as to a safer environment with lots of caring people or like social people, that can actually help create bonds and stuff.” “He’s been here for me throughout everything, been supporting me; still is to this day. But he’s also the one who taught me and grown me through my manhood. Grown me. That’s the word. He’s grown me through my manhood.”	• Invest in mentoring programs and initiatives • Promote counternarratives of Black males and community violence that highlights Black male strengths and healing contributions

Acknowledging Racism at Multiple Levels

Across groups, youth described historical racism, institutional racism, cultural racism, and internalized racism. Among these, cultural racism and historical racism were most common, including cultural appropriation, erasure of Black history, and lasting impacts of slavery (Figure 1). Youth explained how historical racism evolved into modern-day racism, concluding that historical racism was more overt and has been passed down through generations, whereas modern-day racism is more covert and systemic. Youth expressed a variety of narratives related to historical racism, such as the following:

To me I believe racism really started when Europeans started coming over here and they started looking for slaves instead of indentured servants. . . I think when they started going to Africa and they see people with darker skin than them and in worse conditions than them I guess they got into their head that, “Oh, we’re better than them, so why should they be treated as equals?” And it has been taught from generation to generation.

The generational transmission of racist ideas and practices was echoed across discussions. One youth observed,

I see like how the parents influence their children. Like, how racism started in the first place was because their parents influenced them and showed them that people are treated differently than they were. And parents are the biggest influence and biggest aspirers to how we feel about certain things.

When considering modern-day manifestations of racism, youth described cultural appropriation of Black culture without shared responsibility for Black struggles:

They always wanna wear our hair styles, do everything we have, share our culture, but when it’s time to actually be a part of our culture, they just wanna back out. It’s like they want to be Black but they don’t wanna be Black. They want everything we have, but they don’t actually want to take our suffers and our struggles.

In these discussions, youth described how individuals who do not identify as Black often benefit from appropriation of Black cultural aspects that are simultaneously used to stigmatize Black communities.

Figure 1

Photo From Youth Participant, Representing Historical Racism (Acknowledging Racism at Multiple Levels)

In the Atlanta group, discussions of manifestations of modern-day racism included intersectionality in how racism operates. Youth described how gendered experiences of racism are often overlooked, particularly in media coverage. As one youth described it: “Some people aren’t treating other people the way how they’re supposed to be treated because of their gender. And that’s like a major problem along with racism. That’s happening now as well.”

Across discussions, youth emphasized recognizing the multiple levels and manifestations of racism and how it runs deep through a long history that is passed down through families, institutions (i.e., schools), and collective narratives. Youth described the burden of racism on Black youth, including a lack of support from outside the Black community, and how internalized racism contributes to community violence.

Preventing Violence With Anti-Racist Interventions

Youth suggested promising interventions to challenge racism at multiple levels and prevent community violence. Their intervention priorities fell into two subthemes: promoting Black history knowledge and nurturing mentoring relationships.

Promoting Black History Knowledge

Throughout photo-discussions and across groups, youth highlighted the importance of Black history and education (Figures 2 and 3). This included expressions of pride in Black history, importance of protecting and preserving Black history, representation in education, responsibility of education for both oneself and others, descriptions of specific historical context, and generational knowledge.

Figure 2

Photo from Youth Participant, Representing Promoting Black History Knowledge

Figure 3

Photo From Youth Participant, Representing Promoting Black History Knowledge and Acknowledging Racism on Multiple Levels

Youth emphasized a need for representation in education, with respect to both instructors and curriculum. One youth described how a combination of biased representation of history, historical erasure of Black culture, and lack of evolution in school curriculum create an inadequate learning experience:

It’s not really enough information for us as Black people to learn what did we do? What did we make? What change did we make for the world? Like, you know, we have Black history day, but—I mean Black history month, but that’s a month. We’re not really getting taught everything. We’re just sporadically having history lessons when we really need that as a youth, as a generation, because that probably is a way that we could not really stop racism but have other people learn about how it’s affecting people. Because other people are just like, “Well, it’s not affecting me so I don’t really care,” but in reality it really is. It’s affecting everybody.

Multiple youth expressed a preference to learn Black history from a Black teacher. In addition to school curriculum changes, youth felt strongly about the importance of protecting and preserving Black history, particularly within families and communities. Here, the anti-racist intervention of building on generational knowledge of Black culture was emphasized. Youth described how they felt empowered by learning about their own history; as one described,

By knowing this is who I am, and this is where I come from. And if my people can go through what they went through back then and . . . come out successful with what we did accomplish . . . then I’m unstoppable. Because if they can do all that then you can’t touch me!

Youth also discussed the importance of educating non-Black people about Black history. One youth noted,

A lot of the time racism comes from ignorance, and when you have knowledge yourself about how it is and your history on it you can slowly start to educate somebody who is actually willing to listen to you and see how part of their racism is just nothing but ignorance and stereotypes. So really I think the best way to deal with it is talking to somebody, and if you can’t talk to them, oh well, that’s on them. They choose to live in ignorance.

This youth felt that some responsibility lay with her to educate others about racism. However, other youth felt the responsibility fell to others to educate themselves:

If you want to wear our stuff, then you need to educate yourself. That’s what I feel. If you want to wear our braids, you want to say the N-word . . . then do some researching about it. See why we don’t want you to do it.

Youth believed this type of education has the power to counteract racial microaggressions experienced by Black youth and lead to a greater acceptance of self and culture. Youth described a number of responses to these microaggressions, including self-consciousness or double consciousness, code switching, and minimization of one’s authenticity to appease White people. Youth also provided several examples of these daily microaggressions, including disregard for personal space or boundaries, imposition of Eurocentric beauty standards, colorism, and having Black appearance (e.g., hairstyles, clothing) deemed unprofessional.

Youth identified the value of Black history knowledge as an intervention to counter racism at multiple levels and prevent community violence by increasing understanding and broadened support, as well as reducing internalized racism.

Nurturing Mentoring Relationships

Youth included many descriptions of the importance of building relationships with mentors as well as peers, throughout their photo-discussions (Figure 4). Youth emphasized the influence mentor relationships can have on them, with one youth describing multiple positive outcomes: “When you bond with somebody it makes you stronger as a person; you know, like physically, mentally, emotionally.” Several youth gave personal examples of how Black male mentors had positively impacted them. For example, one youth described the relationship he has with his grandfather:

He’s been here for me throughout everything, been supporting me; still is to this day. But he’s also the one who taught me and grown me through my manhood. Grown me. That’s the word. He’s grown me through my manhood.

Participants felt strongly that emphasizing the power of mentors in the Black community, particularly Black males, is an important counternarrative to the common portrayals of Black communities in community violence prevention discussions and initiatives. Shifting our focus from stigmatizing Black males to uplifting and showcasing their strengths and healing contributions is an important anti-racist approach to community violence prevention.

Figure 4

Photo From Youth Participant, Representing Nurturing Mentoring Relationships

Youth also noted learning from the experiences of their mentors: “We can learn from their mistakes or we can gain off of their successes. By them succeeding, we can learn how to succeed more. And by them failing, we can learn the mistakes from them and do better.”

Furthermore, youth acknowledged a reciprocal relationship between building bonds with others and dismantling racism and community violence. One youth noted that “if we create more bonds with each other, it reduces like the hate.” Another youth described the importance of the social environment in building these positive bonds:

It all starts with the environment that you’re in. ‘Cause if you’re in a like rough environment, then it may not encourage you to go outside and talk to people; as to a safer environment with lots of caring people or like social people, that can actually help create bonds and stuff.

Youth emphasized the power of relationships and how they can support anti-racist social action.

Discussion and Implications for Practice, Policy, and Research

Anti-Racist Intervention as Community Violence Prevention

Study findings revealed innovative opportunities for social action to prevent community violence. Across both photovoice groups, youth highlighted the importance of recognizing the legacy of racism and how it manifests at multiple levels. Youth proposed specific anti-racist interventions to counteract racism at these multiple levels, including mitigating the erasure of Black history and culture, and uplifting Black cultural assets such as mentoring relationships. Youth emphasized the importance of counteracting popular narratives that devalue Black lives to build self-worth among youth from a young age. Practice recommendations centered around supporting familial and community-based mentorship efforts to build positive relationships, foster a sense of belonging, and build deep connections with the rich history of their community and culture.

Youth also stressed the need for greater representation of staff of color and culturally responsive curriculum in public schools. Anti-racist school policy interventions that promote culturally responsive curriculum and diverse representation in school staff offer a new approach to community violence prevention in schools. In addition, community interventions that preserve and honor Black history were identified as intervention strategies. Finally, education specific to cultural appropriation for non-Black individuals centering on the history of Black culture and why it is important to preserve Black history was seen as a way to directly address harmful experiences of racial microaggressions that Black youth often face on a daily basis.

Partnering with Black youth generated new shared understandings of how to apply an anti-racist framework to community violence prevention. Our findings challenge current narratives of community violence, and fit with other anti-racist conceptual frameworks, such as the Radical Healing Framework that emphasizes active resistance to oppression, community strength, and cultural authenticity as resources to promote healing from oppression (French et al., 2020). Our study identifies the importance of resisting oppressive narratives that devalue Black lives, and building upon community strength and cultural authenticity by uplifting Black history, culture, and community assets (e.g., mentors) as anti-racist community violence prevention strategies. In addition, aligned with the Black History Knowledge Model for Coping and Mental Health (Chapman-Hilliard & Adams-Bass, 2016) our findings echo the critical importance of equipping youth with knowledge of the achievements, strengths, and resistance to oppression in Black history and support future research applying this model to community violence prevention. Our findings also align with recent research and practice efforts, such as those of the University of Louisville Youth Violence Prevention Research Center, that focus on elevating positive Black history, increasing critical consciousness, and changing the narrative around violence among Black youth by focusing on the structural violence of racism (Wendel et al., 2021).

Limitations

Participants in this study were recruited from a small convenience sample of adolescents enrolled in our community partners’ programming. Our total sample size was small (N = 13) and our two photovoice groups were uneven with nine participants in our Kansas City group and four participants in our Atlanta group. Despite our attempts to recruit for gender diversity in both groups, our Atlanta group was all male, which could have influenced the nature of the photovoice discussions. Despite these limitations, our study demonstrates the importance of applying an anti-racist lens to community violence prevention practice, research, and policy.

Next Steps

We are currently pursing social action that builds from our photovoice findings, including a community awareness campaign focused on highlighting key themes and messages to promote anti-racist community violence prevention through a public service announcement, billboard campaign, and community member testimonials, and advocating for resources to go toward expanding mentorship programs to include an intentional focus on youth critical consciousness development and empowered action to address systems that contribute to violence in their communities. Future community violence practice, research, and policy should prioritize partnering with Black youth to address these public health crises by building on community strengths.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We thank Ms. Teesha Miller, MBA, MHA, and Ms. Courtney Rice, MSW, for their contributions to this work. The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

ORCID iDs

Briana Woods-Jaeger

Tiffaney L. Renfro

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