Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the life and work of Solomon W. Straub, who worked as a music teacher, composer, and publisher during the late nineteenth century. Straub was born in Butler Township of DeKalb County, Indiana, in 1842. He taught music in Dowagiac and Lansing, Michigan, before moving to Chicago, Illinois, in 1873. Straub established his own publishing firm in 1879 and promoted his publications and pedagogical ideas as a leader of singing conventions, normal musical institutes, and chautauqua choirs. Colleagues included his sisters Mary and Maria, his son, Arthur, and several prominent musicians who published with the company and assisted at institutes and conventions. Straub helped perpetuate, support, and develop music education through the cumulative influence of his various musical enterprises. His pedagogy reflected past methods developed by Lowell Mason forty years prior as well as the philosophies underlying progressive education during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Straub died in Chicago in September 1899 at fifty-six years of age. Although not considered a major figure in music education today, he played an important role in the musical life of the Midwest United States during the last three decades of the 1800s and helped carry the profession into the twentieth century.
Keywords
Music educators in nineteenth-century America filled multiple roles as teachers, church musicians, conductors, composers, and publishers. 1 George Frederick Root (1820–1895), for example, studied and worked with Lowell Mason at the Boston Academy of Music and the Boston Public Schools before moving to New York City in 1844. In New York, he directed music at the Mercer Street Presbyterian Church and taught at several private institutions. He also composed music and compiled tune books, taught private lessons, conducted singing conventions, and eventually became a partner in the publishing firm of Root and Cady in Chicago. 2
Most music teachers of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries probably learned through self-study, private instruction, and observing the local singing master. 3 Formal training began in August 1834 when Lowell Mason (1792–1872) and George James Webb (1803–1887) introduced eight- to ten-day teachers’ classes at the Boston Academy of Music. In April 1853, George F. Root—with the help of Lowell Mason and William B. Bradbury—extended these efforts by establishing the first long-term preparation course at the New York Normal Musical Institute in New York City. The curriculum included the study of pedagogy, voice culture, music theory, and choral literature, as well as private lessons with prominent musicians and teachers. The institute met throughout the academic year in eleven-week sessions until July 1855, and then reconvened as a summer school to North Reading, Massachusetts, in June 1856. In 1860, the Normal Musical Institute began moving to various cities throughout the country in order to attract new students and provide professional development where similar opportunities were unavailable. The school became the National Normal Musical Institute in 1872 and continued under this name until its final season in Elmira, New York, in 1885.
Root’s Normal Musical Institute and similar schools prepared numerous musicians and teachers who contributed to American culture during the mid- to late nineteenth century. 4 Although researchers have documented the lives of the most prominent of these individuals, they often have neglected to examine the contributions of lesser figures who promoted, sustained, and perpetuated the field in their respective times and places. Reasons for this phenomenon may be the common use of top–down research methodology that focuses on events and people deemed most important to a particular field or topic, a lack of source material, or the fact that their work did not represent pioneering efforts in the field. Regardless, the stories of these men and women are necessary for a complete history of music education in the United States. 5
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the life and work of one such individual, Solomon W. Straub (1842–1899), who served as a leader in church music and music education throughout the Midwest during the late nineteenth century. 6 Research questions focused on his life, pedagogy, musical contributions, and work as a composer, conductor, teacher, and teacher educator. Methodology involved collecting and analyzing information from diverse primary and secondary sources including U.S. census data, articles from periodicals and newspapers, tune books, and instructional materials. 7 I then organized this information into a chronological narrative. 8
Solomon W. Straub
Solomon W. Straub was born December 2, 1842, in Butler Township of DeKalb County, Indiana, and was the youngest among his three brothers (Henry, Simon, Jacob), and four sisters (Susan, Mary Ann, Maria, Barbara Elizabeth). His father Joseph (1801–1860) and mother Elizabeth (1809–1881) were of German heritage and born in Pennsylvania. 9 They operated a farm in Marion County, Ohio, before moving to Butler Township, Indiana, in 1835. In 1842, the family moved to Carroll County, Indiana but returned to Butler Township five years later after an outbreak of malaria. 10 Joseph and Elizabeth were “zealous, church-going people,” 11 who encouraged lives of service among their children. Solomon’s brother Jacob (b. 1835) entered the ministry of the Universalist denomination in 1860 and led congregations in Michigan, Illinois, and Cuba. 12 His sister, Mary Ann (b. 1836), was ordained in 1878 and served a Universalist church in Castalia, Iowa, for three years. 13 Maria (1838–1897) worked briefly as a schoolteacher in rural Indiana and wrote poems and hymn texts throughout her life. 14
Joseph died on December 25, 1860, and family members assumed operation of the farm. 15 Solomon lived on the homestead until around 1862, when he moved to Dowagiac, Michigan, where Jacob served as a minister. He married Pheobe Bell (1836–1920) on September 8, 1864, and the couple welcomed their first child, Arthur M., in 1866. 16 Solomon composed several of his first known pieces during this time and probably led music in his brother’s congregation and taught private voice and keyboard lessons as well. 17
Straub attended George Root’s Normal Musical Institute held in South Bend, Indiana, July 5–August 16, 1870, with approximately one hundred eighty students from seventeen states and Canada. He studied pedagogy with Root, voice with the acclaimed Italian teacher Carlo Bassini (1812–1870), and piano with Lowell Mason’s son William Mason (1849–1908). 18 Chauncey M. Wyman (1835–1870), a protégé of Root, served as choral director and led three hundred voices in a performance of The Creation by Franz J. Haydn at the end of the term. 19
Straub reenrolled in the Institute—renamed the National Normal Musical Institute—when it convened at Chicago University during the summers of 1872 and 1873. 20 His instructors included Robert Goldbeck (1839–1908), a famous composer and pianist who established music conservatories in Chicago and St. Louis, and Carl Zerrahn (1826–1909), who led several Boston organizations in American premieres of works by Mozart, Haydn, and Mendelssohn. 21 Straub was clearly an advanced pupil and respected colleague by 1873 when the faculty selected him to perform as a tenor soloist for Michael Costa’s oratorio, Eli, on the Institute’s final concert. 22
In 1871, Solomon and Pheobe moved to Lansing, Michigan, where Jacob had been preaching for five years. Advertisements in the local newspaper indicated that both Solomon and his wife worked as “teachers of piano, organ, cultivation of the voice, harmony or thorough-base, and composition [with] especial attention given those designing to teach.” 23 In 1872, Jacob accepted a call from a church in Muskegon, Michigan, and Solomon relocated his family to Chicago, Illinois, where he built a successful career as an educator, composer, editor, and publisher. 24 The Straubs eventually moved to a house in the Woodlawn Park neighborhood and welcomed their second son, Stanley Leroy (1879–1964), to the family. 25 Mary Ann and Maria lived nearby, as did Jacob, when he was not committed to a congregation. 26
Solomon remained active in the Universalist Church by serving on denominational committees, advocating for quality music for the Sunday school, and supporting the church’s involvement in the national temperance movement, for which he wrote several anthems. 27 He also maintained a private voice studio, performed as a vocalist and organist, conducted sacred choral concerts in the community, and participated in activities of the Illinois Music Teachers Association. 28 Solomon continued his work in Chicago until his death on September 2, 1899, at fifty-six years of age. 29 He was buried in the Straub family plot in Swan Cemetery, Noble County, Indiana. 30
Straub’s sons pursued their own musical careers. Arthur studied piano with William Mason, William H. Sherwood, and William C. E. Seeboeck and eventually joined his father in teaching and publishing. He traveled extensively and was a featured soloist in the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. 31 Arthur taught singing classes in northern Illinois in the late 1890s and, in 1897, married Lois Maude Bell from Sacramento, California, and managed the US tour of the Margaret Mather Theater Company of Toronto, Canada. The couple moved to Detroit, Michigan, around 1899, where Arthur operated the Studio of Vocal Art and his deceased father’s publishing business. 32 Stanley remained in Chicago and worked as a self-employed music teacher until retiring to Tallahassee, Florida. 33
Composer, Editor, and Publisher
Solomon Straub composed numerous vocal and keyboard works during his career. 34 Like his mentor, George Root, and other popular American composers of the day, his music featured simple harmonies and predictable melodies that appealed to the masses and were easy to learn. 35 Many of his songs adhered to the form established by Stephen Foster that included solo verses followed by a four-part chorus, and sentimental themes that centered on the home, mother, death, love, and other common experiences. 36 Straub’s music for children utilized conservative vocal ranges and lyrics that encouraged “industry, perseverance, hope, kindness, respect, duty, obedience, patriotism, temperance, and Trust in Him whose loving hand is over all.” 37
Straub wrote several of his earliest known songs while living in Dowagiac. “The Lost Child” tells the true story of a small boy who wandered from his home and drowned in a local river. “Hail, Beautiful Banner” celebrated the Union victory in the U.S. Civil War and was dedicated to Solomon’s sister, Barbara B. (Straub) Basset, of Butler, Indiana. These pieces featured lyrics by Maria and were self-published by Straub in 1868. 38 Root and Cady of Chicago issued the temperance anthem, “Gird On, Gird On, Your Sword of Trust,” that same year and included “Good Night” and “Let the People Praise Thee,” in Chauncey Wyman’s collection, The Psalm, in 1870. 39 Additional publishers of Straub’s early compositions included S. Brainard and Sons of Cleveland, G. D. Russell and Company in Boston, C. J. Whitney and Company from Detroit, John Church and Company of Cincinnati, and Chandler and Curtiss in Chicago. 40
John Church and Company published Straub’s first book, The Golden Rule: A Collection of Songs, Hymns, and Chants for Sunday-schools, Juvenile Concerts, Festivals, Anniversaries, and the Home Circle, in the fall of 1872. The text contained 141 songs appropriate for opening and closing exercises, special occasions and concerts, and solos with chorus. Straub contributed 73 original pieces and collaborated with Mary and Maria on lyrics for 32 of the selections. Other composers represented in The Golden Rule included George F. Root, Philip P. Bliss, William A. Ogden, and Horatio R. Palmer. 41 E. Tower Root and business partner William Lewis published Straub’s second book in 1874 titled Good Cheer!: For Singing Classes, Conventions, Choirs, Day Schools, Societies, Etc. The text contained three sections: (I) Elementary exercises in singing and note reading, (II) secular glees, quartets, and songs, and (III) sacred anthems, hymn tunes, and chants. 42
Chicago publishers Jansen, McClurg and Company and Root and Sons Music handled Straub’s subsequent books (see Appendix) until 1879, when he launched his own firm from his home at 3013 Indiana Avenue in Chicago. 43 He relocated the business to 69 Dearborn Street around 1882, State Street circa 1884, and the Auditorium Building on Michigan Avenue in the mid-1890s. 44 Although several companies previously issued Straub’s works, he retained the rights to many of them and, therefore, was able to offer an extensive catalog from the start. 45 He also arranged distribution partnerships with Oliver Ditson of Boston, W. A. Pond in New York, C. J. Whitney of Detroit, and F. A. North in Philadelphia, which helped establish his firm on a national level. 46
A number of composers published with Straub’s company. Thomas Martin Towne (1835–1912) was born in Colerain, Franklin County, Massachusetts. He studied with William F. Sherwin in Albany, New York, before teaching in Ypsilanti and Detroit, Michigan. He left the profession temporarily to perform as a musician in the Union Army during the U.S. Civil War and then taught in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and edited Sunday school music for the David C. Cook Publishing House in Chicago. Towne attended the Normal Musical Institute in North Reading in 1860 and served on the faculty in 1870. 47 Jairus Maxson Stillman (1834–1917) was born in Alfred, New York, and learned music from his father who led a church choir and taught singing schools in the area. He held a Doctor of Music degree from Alfred University, attended Root’s Normal Musical Institute in 1857 and 1870, and served as a professor at Milton College in Milton, Wisconsin, from 1885 to 1909. 48 William Frederick Werschkul (1850–1933) immigrated with his family to the United States from Prussia in 1859 and grew up in Muskegon, Michigan. 49 He was teaching music in Rome City, Indiana, by June 1880, and then moved to Chicago and worked with Straub until the end of the decade, when he married and relocated to Portland, Oregon. 50
Arthur Straub also contributed vocal and piano music to the catalog. His first piece, “Be kind to Bessie” (1885) featured lyrics by Mary Straub and told the story of a dying mother’s plea for her son to take care of his little sister. 51 Arthur’s piano works, such as “Woodlawn Waltz,” “Springtime Quickstep,” and “Annie Laurie Variations” were in a light classical style accessible to both listeners and amateur musicians. 52
Music publishers of the nineteenth century often advertised new works and publicized the activities of their composers through a company magazine. These periodicals also usually included articles and sheet music to attract subscribers. Several of Straub’s early compositions appeared in The Song Messenger published by Root and Cady and, eventually, Root and Sons, of Chicago. 53 Likewise, Straub issued The Song Friend beginning in late 1879 as the main organ of the firm. 54 This publication consisted of thirty-two pages of news items, articles on sacred and secular music, voice culture, theory, and pedagogy, as well as sheet music for voice and keyboard. 55 Solomon served as general editor with the assistance of his sister, Maria, and his son, Arthur, who edited the piano department. 56 Subscriptions to The Song Friend cost $1.00 per year and included a premium of three pieces of sheet music. Single copies sold for 10¢. Straub offered “liberal inducements” to “canvassers” who would sell the publication door-to-door. 57
Straub discontinued The Song Friend in 1894 but published new music until at least 1897. Late works in the company’s catalog included combined volumes of previously issued books 58 and “Ever Ready Two-Step March” (1897) and “Dorothy Waltz” (1897) by Arthur Straub, both of which were “up to date in every respect [and] . . . popular in all leading theater and dance orchestras in the United States and Canada.” 59 Arthur assumed control of the family business following his father’s death in 1899. He relocated the firm to Detroit, Michigan, in 1900 and operated out of offices in the Abend-Post newspaper building at 58 Miami Avenue where he also maintained a voice studio. Arthur apparently issued no new works before selling the catalog to Echo Music of Chicago around 1903. 60
Conductor and Teacher Educator
Straub’s success as a composer and tune book editor probably helped him become a popular leader of singing conventions, musical institutes, and chautauqua assemblies. Although people sometimes used these terms interchangeably, a “convention” by Straub’s time typically met for a few days and centered on mass choral performance for amateur singers. “Institutes” lasted for a longer period and focused on teacher preparation, but usually welcomed students who simply wanted to improve their own musicianship. 61 Chautauquas were three- to ten-day events held in the summer that provided adults with education, culture, and entertainment. The first of these assemblies met in 1874 at Chautauqua Lake, New York, to train Sunday school teachers. Their popularity led to similar events with expanded programs throughout the United States. Many chautauquas included music departments that provided opportunities for instruction and choral singing. 62 Straub’s work at Root’s institute and the desire to promote his own books and materials probably inspired him to begin leading various musical events in the mid-1870s. 63
Conventions and Chautauqua Assemblies
Straub organized his first known musical convention in March 1874, in Muskegon, Michigan, where his brother was working as a minister. The program included class voice lessons and a final concert held at the local academy of music. A similar convention in Muskegon the following year concluded with a concert featuring “the best voices in the city” singing “Hallelujah” from Handel’s Messiah at the local Methodist Episcopal Church. 64 Although Straub conducted many successful conventions throughout his career (see Table 1), not every event went smoothly. The Rochester Spy, for example, reported in 1877 that Straub’s convention in that city “was not a success financially” and that “the ‘professor’ got his pay and skipped out, but the executive committee, the printers and others were left to hold the bag.” 65
Partial List of Conventions Organized by Straub: 1874-1896. 66
Held during the Christmas season and designated as holiday conventions.
Most of Straub’s professional engagements occurred in the Midwest. In February 1886, however, he, his family, and W. F. Werkschul traveled to Sacramento, California, where they visited relatives and led a three-day convention at the Young Men’s Christian Association. An announcement in the Sacramento Daily Record Union listed sessions at 10:00
The chautauqua movement brought new opportunities for Straub. From June 26 to July 7, 1890, both he and his son Arthur taught and performed at the chautauqua in Beatrice, Nebraska. Solomon led choral singing at 9:45
Institutes
Straub and his associates began leading annual normal musical institutes in 1874 that lasted from 10 days to five weeks in cities throughout the Midwest. 71 Straub’s Normal Musical Institute in 1877 met in Plymouth, Indiana, from July 9 to August 10. Forty students enrolled in the instructional program, and an additional thirty-five singers from the community joined the chorus. 72 Three final concerts at the Centennial Opera House featured faculty and students singing solos by Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Wagner, as well as oratorio choruses by Handel and Haydn. 73 Although deemed “quite successful,” several citizens in Plymouth felt that “the management of the musical normal was decidedly of the penurious order,” because Straub charged $25.00 to lead music at high school graduation the previous month but refused to provide concert tickets to the board of education who granted the Institute free use of the school building. 74
Straub agreed to hold the Institute in Elkhart, Indiana, the following year if the city could guarantee twenty-five students and provide a furnished room to hold classes. 75 The session commenced on Monday, July 8, in the Central School Building with about fifty pupils from Indiana and surrounding states. 76 Friday matinées and evening concerts featured solos and ensembles performed by the faculty as well as selections from Straub’s latest book, The Convention and Choir (1877), presented by the institute chorus (see Table 2). 77 Organizers stated, “It is hoped that there will be awakened in our city such a musical interest as a result of the Normal that our [music] teachers will have double the number in their classes . . . and that our school board will see the necessity of having music taught in our schools.” 78 Straub bolstered the campaign for public school music by featuring a special chorus of one hundred children at an evening program on Saturday, August 3, 1878. 79
Normal Musical Institute, Matinée Program, Friday, July 26, 1878, Elkhart, Indiana. 80
From Convention and Choir (1877).
From Woodland Echoes (1878).
Subsequent institutes met on an annual basis (see Table 3). 81 By 1883, Straub’s school had become the American Normal Musical Institute and offered courses in teaching methods, church music, voice culture, harmony, composition, conducting, solo singing, piano, and organ. Although the school focused on teacher preparation, the faculty welcomed students who simply wanted to participate for their own enjoyment. 82
Normal Musical Institutes Organized by Straub: 1874–1889.
The success of the convention held in Sacramento, California, in February 1886 prompted Straub to organize a ten-day institute the following month at the First Baptist Church in that city. The complete course of fifty lessons cost $5.00, with individual classes offered at $2.00 each. The daily program included coursework in church music (2:00
Arthur Straub returned to Sacramento in the fall of 1889 to perform and teach. He opened a School of Piano at Hodson’s Art Gallery and promised that “much time and money [could] be saved by studying his modern methods of piano techniques, as taught by Miss Amy Fay, Carlyle Petersilia, W. C. E Seeboeck, William Sherwood and Dr. William Mason.” 84 Arthur remained in California until the spring of 1890, when he returned to Chicago to join his father in convention and chautauqua work. 85
Assistant teachers at Straub’s institutes included W. F. Werschkul, T. Martin Towne, Jarius M. Stillman, Arthur M. Straub, and other prominent musicians from Chicago. 86 C. A. Havens, for example, composed and taught vocal and instrumental music at Chicago Female College and Morgan Park Military Academy. 87 Amy Fay (1844–1928) was born in Louisiana and studied piano with Franz Liszt in Weimar, Germany. She relocated to Chicago from Boston in 1878 and gained a national reputation as a concert performer, lecturer, music critic, and teacher. 88 N. Wardner Williams taught voice and conducted ensembles at the University of Chicago. His teachers included William Hall Sherwood, Carl Zerrahn, and Alexandre Guilmant of the National Conservatory of Paris. 89 William D. Berry was an African-American singer originally from Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, who was described as “a finely-cultured tenor, a ready reader of music, and excellent in oratorio performance.” 90 Adolf Koelling was an accomplished pianist and head of the composition department at the Chicago Musical College, and Miss Mollie Adelia Brown worked as a teacher and vocalist in the city. 91
The American Normal Musical Institute closed after its sixteenth season, held in Three Rivers, Michigan, in 1889. 92 Several factors probably contributed to the end of the school, including competition created by similar institutes operated by large publishers to promote new music textbook series for public schools. Hosea E. Holt, for example, began offering a course in Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1884 to generate sales for the Normal Music Course. This program became the American Institute of Normal Methods and opened a branch at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, in 1889. Similar institutes included the National Summer School of Music, which opened in 1886 to publicize the National Music Course by Luther Whiting Mason, and the New School of Methods, organized in Cataumet, Massachusetts, and Chicago, Illinois, in 1895 to promote the Natural Music Course by Frederick H. Ripley and Thomas Tapper. 93 These institutions differed from those that had come before in that they catered primarily to school music supervisors and classroom teachers. 94
Pedagogy
Solomon Straub was among the third and final generation of music educators directly influenced by Lowell Mason’s Manual of the Boston Academy of Music, for Instruction in the Elements of Vocal Music on the System of Pestalozzi (1834). 95 This book—mostly an edited translation of a German textbook by G. F. Kubler—guided numerous singing school masters who studied at the Academy and eventually Root’s Normal Musical Institute. Following this system, people learned to sing by rote while beating time, in order to develop the voice, the ear, and a sense of pulse. Students then studied rhythm, melody, and dynamics (expression), all broken into smaller units of instruction. The teacher introduced one concept at a time and then led singers to an understanding of theory and notation through questions intended to draw conclusions based on their observations. 96
Straub’s teacher, George F. Root, was a champion for Mason’s pedagogy and expanded on this approach in his Normal Musical Handbook: A Book of Instruction and Reference for Teachers of Notation, Voice Culture, Harmony and Church Music, in Classes (1872).
97
Like Mason and Root, Straub was a firm believer in teaching students to understand musical concepts aurally and condemned teachers who neglected this skill, saying, The weakness of ordinary teaching is that the sense of hearing is not trained much, if at all. Many begin by teaching first the signs of the things that the pupils do not know. So the cart is trying to push the horse all the way along. This absurd method should be supplanted by something better. The teacher of harmony, if he will, can make this usually dry study full of interest, by training the ear to recognize the peculiar mental effects of chord-formations, part-placing, voice-leading, modulations, etc.
98
Mason’s Manual of the Boston Academy of Music and Root’s Normal Musical Handbook influenced Straub’s work throughout his career.
99
In following Mason’s pedagogy of introducing concepts aurally, one-at-a-time, and through a series of questions, he instructed teachers to teach thoroughly the new ideas illustrated by the exercises before turning to them in the book. Give such questions to the class as will lead them to discover the truth themselves rather than ask them to accept your bare statement. . . . Do not tell the class what you are going to introduce, but let them find it out.
100
Straub, furthermore, recommended that instructors begin preliminary lessons with easy rote melodies that students could use later to practice beating time in various meters. He also said that teachers should play the keyboard sparingly and refrain from singing with the class in order to develop pupils’ independence. 101 Straub encouraged instructors to be as efficient as possible, saying, “The teacher who can get the most legitimate practice from the class is the best.” 102
Classes taught with Straub’s method began with “Imitation Exercises” (see Figure 1), whereby the teacher introduced various musical concepts aurally through short melodic excerpts that students repeated. At first, both the teacher and students sang the exercises with solfege. Later, the teacher sang the excerpts on la and students attempted to repeat them with the correct syllables. 103 After practicing aural skills, students worked through the written progressive exercises in one of Straub’s tune books before proceeding to the choral selections, which filled most of the text.
The Singing Teacher’s Helper, p. 7, Imitation Exercise No. 2.
Straub’s early instruction books, such as Good Cheer (1874) and Song Magic (1881), began with explanations of “rythmics,” “melodics,” and “dynamics” as defined by Mason in 1834. Future publications dispensed with this section, but continued to introduce these elements in the same basic sequence as the Manual of the Boston Academy of Music. Note reading began with chanting unpitched rhythms (see Figure 2), and singing numbers, letters, or solfege arranged in ascending and descending patterns (see Figures 3 and 4). 104
The Convention and Choir, p. 13, Exercise 1.
Splendor, p. 3, Exercises 1.
Ever New, p. 12, Exercise 4.
Time signatures proceeded in the order of 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4, followed by 6/4 or 6/8. Some texts also introduced 3/2, 4/2, 9/8, and 12/8. Ever New (1885) utilized 4/4 before 3/4 and included 2/8, 3/8, and 4/8 as well. 105 In Convention and Choir (1877), Straub began illustrating time signatures with notation for the note that received one beat in place of the bottom number (e.g., Figure 1). Note and rest values began with the quarter and progressed to the half, dotted half, whole, eighth, dotted quarter, dotted eighth, and sixteenth. 106
Key signatures in Straub’s books were introduced from C major through the circle of fifths to F# major, then from F major through Gb major. The chromatic scale and la-based minor modes appeared after major tonality was well established. In Concord (1883), Splendor (1888), and other books, students practiced preliminary exercises in major keys from a staff without a clef or meter, but with do indicated on different lines and spaces. These studies allowed pupils to experience different keys before an explanation of key signatures and other theoretical concepts (see Figure 5). 107 Straub claimed that these exercises would “make good readers in all the keys, in at least one half the time required in getting this result, by the usual method” because students learned to associate solfege syllables with scale degrees rather than absolute pitches in the starting key of C major. 108
Splendor, p. 6, Exercises a-c.
Modulation studies that appeared later in the instructional sequence further developed students’ ability to move from one tonic to another by changing key signatures every few bars (see Figure 6). 109
Splendor, p. 18, Exercise 35.
Part-singing proceeded from two-voice rounds to homophonic exercises in two, three, and four parts. Other elements such as tempo, style, articulation, and dynamics gradually were introduced throughout the instructional sequence. 110 Students learned to keep the tonic and beat “fixed in the mind” as they advanced through music at higher levels of tonal, rhythmic, and textural complexity. 111
Straub’s instructional texts also included lessons in voice culture (breathing, vowels, consonants, and tone quality) and technique, and a list of definitions and pronunciations of musical terms. 112 Later books such as Splendor and Straub’s New Model presented motivational statements at the top of every page to remind students to take responsibility for their own learning. Examples from Splendor included, “Be in your place when the lesson begins,” “Do not laugh when you or your neighbor makes a mistake,” and “If you cannot read in all the keys now, it is your fault.” Statements in New Model were a bit more positive: “I will try to sing in tune,” and “I will not be a ‘guesser’ but a ‘reader.’” 113
The New Model also abandoned the oblong shape common for tune books of the nineteenth century and changed the order of vocal parts in the open score from tenor, alto, soprano, bass, to soprano, alto, tenor, bass. Musical practice in the United States during the eighteenth century dictated that tenors sing the melody in church because many believed that it was inappropriate for females to take the lead in worship. 114 Around the turn of the nineteenth century, Andrew Law and other composers asserted the European custom of assigning the melody to the soprano. 115 Many tune book compilers, however, continued to honor the superiority of males, at least in principle, by placing the tenor at the top of the staff. All of Straub’s adult choral books published before the New Model followed this convention. 116
Summary and Conclusions
Solomon W. Straub was born in Butler Township of DeKalb County, Indiana, in 1842. He taught music in Dowagiac and Lansing, Michigan, before moving to Chicago, Illinois, in 1873. He attended George F. Root’s Normal Musical Institute from 1870 to 1873, and soon became a popular teacher, conductor, and composer. Straub established his own publishing firm in 1879 and promoted his publications and pedagogical ideas as a leader of singing conventions, normal musical institutes, and chautauqua choirs. He worked with a number of colleagues, including his sisters Mary and Maria, who contributed lyrics for his compositions and helped edit the company periodical, The Song Friend. Solomon’s son, Arthur, eventually joined the family business by contributing compositions, editing the piano department of The Song Friend, and teaching with his father. Other associates included W. F. Werschkul, T. Martin Towne, J. M. Stillman, and several prominent musicians who published with the company and assisted at conventions and institutes.
Straub helped perpetuate, support, and develop music education through the cumulative influence of his various musical enterprises. His pedagogy reflected past methods developed by Lowell Mason forty years prior as well as the philosophies underlying progressive education during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. 117 Many of Straub’s teaching strategies also foreshadow those recommended by Edwin E. Gordon and other contemporary music pedagogues. 118
Although not considered a major figure in music education today, Straub played an important role in the musical life of the Midwest United States during the last three decades of the 1800s and helped carry the profession into the twentieth century. Additional historical research is needed to identify other men and women who filled similar roles in music education during this and other times in history. Experimental studies examining their pedagogical methods also might reveal effective past practices that teachers could adapt in modern music classrooms. This ongoing line of research will add to the literature and increase our understanding of the development of music teaching and learning in the United States.
Footnotes
Appendix
Books by Solomon W. Straub.
| Date | Title | Publisher | Purpose |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1872 | The Golden Rule | John Church | Sunday Schools |
| 1874 | Good Cheer! | Root & Lewis | Singing Classes, Conventions |
| 1876 | Crown of Glory | Jansen, McClurg & Co. | Sunday Schools |
| 1877 | The Convention & Choir | Jansen, McClurg & Co. | Conventions, Singing Schools |
| 1878 | Woodland Echoes | Jansen, McClurg & Co. | Public Schools, Singing Classes |
| 1879 | The Star Singer | Jansen, McClurg & Co. | Singing Classes, Conventions |
| 1880 | The Morning Light | Root & Sons | Sunday Schools |
| 1881 | Song Magic | S. W. Straub | Singing Classes, Day Schools |
| 1881 | Straub’s Chorus Book | S. W. Straub | Conventions, Advanced Classes |
| 1882 | Anthem Treasures (with J. M. Stillman) | S. W. Straub | Choirs, Public Worship |
| 1882 | The Enlarged Morning Light | S. W. Straub | Sunday Schools |
| 1883 | Temperance Battle Songs | S. W. Straub | Choirs & Glee Clubs |
| 1883 | Concord | S. W. Straub | Singing Schools, Conventions |
| 1883 | The Teacher’s Guide to Concord | S. W. Straub | Pedagogy |
| 1884 | Living Fountain | S. W. Straub | Sunday Schools |
| 1885 | Ever New! (with W. F. Werschkul) | S. W. Straub | Singing Schools, Conventions |
| 1885 | The Singing Teacher’s Helper | S. W. Straub | Pedagogy |
| 1885 | Happy Moments | S. W. Straub | Public Schools, Seminaries |
| 1887 | Beautiful Songs! | S. W. Straub | Sunday Schools |
| 1887 | Choir & Class | S. W. Straub | Choirs, Singing Classes |
| 1888 | Splendor | S. W. Straub | Singing Classes, Conventions |
| 1890 | Christian Life Songs | S. W. Straub | Sunday Schools, Prayer Meetings |
| 1890 | Good Luck! | S. W. Straub | Singing Classes, Conventions |
| 1891 | Anthems of Joy (with T. M. Towne) | S. W. Straub | Church Choirs |
| 1893 | Bright Light | S. W. Straub | Sunday Schools |
| 1894 | Straub’s New Model | S. W. Straub | Singing Classes, Conventions |
| 1896 | Beautiful Songs & Living Fountain | S. W. Straub | [reprint] |
| 1896 | Happy Moments & Woodlawn Echoes | S. W. Straub | [reprint] |
| 1896 | Combined Song Magic & Star Singer | S. W. Straub | [reprint] |
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
1
Richard Crawford, America’s Musical Life: A History (New York: Norton, 2001), 151–55.
2
George F. Root, The Story of a Musical Life (Cincinnati, OH: John Church Company, 1891), 37–56, 91, 122–23. Root’s brother Ebenezer Towner Root and Chauncey Marvin Cady opened the publishing firm in 1858.
3
Alan Clark Buechner, Yankee Singing Schools and the Golden Age of Choral Music in New England, 1760-1800 (Boston: Boston University, 2003), 45; Edward Bailey Birge, History of Public School Music in the United States, new and augm. ed. (Philadelphia, PA: Oliver Ditson Company, 1937), 17.
4
Phillip M. Hash, “George F. Root’s Normal Musical Institute,” Journal of Research in Music Education 60, no. 3 (2012): 271–78.
5
Jere T. Humphreys, “Sex and Geographic Representation in Two Music Education History Books,” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 131 (1997): 67, 81–82.
6
Major music education historians do not mention Straub. See Birge, History of Public School Music, 1937; Loyd Frederick Sunderman, Historical Foundations of Music Education in the United States (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1971); A. Theodore Tellstrom, Music in American Education, Past and Present (New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1971); Michael L. Mark and Charles L. Gary, A History of American Music Education, 3rd ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education, 2007); James A. Keene, A History of Music Education in the United States, 2nd ed. (Centennial, CO: Glenbridge, 2009).
7
8
For a description of this process, see Roger P. Phelps, Ronald H. Sadoff, Edward C. Warburton, and Lawrence Ferrara, A Guide to Research in Music Education, 5th ed. (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 2005), 208–13.
9
“United States Census, 1850,” index and images, FamilySearch, Joseph Stroup, Butler, De Kalb, Indiana, United States; citing dwelling 13, family 13, NARA microfilm publication M432, roll 142, accessed November 28, 2013, 
; W. S. B. Mathews, ed., A Hundred Years of Music in America (Chicago: G. L. Howe, 1900), 741.
10
History of De Kalb County, Indiana (Chicago: Inter-State Publishing, 1885), 503–4; E. R. Hanson, Our Women Workers: Biographical Sketches of Women Eminent in the Universalist Church for Literary, Philanthropic and Christian Work, 3rd ed. (Chicago: Star and Covenant Office, 1884), 492.
11
Hanson, Our Women Workers, 492.
12
History of DeKalb County, Indiana, 504; Universalist Register, Giving Statistics for the Universalist Church, and Other Denominational Information, Etc., for 1891, ed. Richard Eddy (Boston: Universalist Publishing House, 1890), 111; Universalist Register,…1895, ed. Richard Eddy (Boston: Universalist Publishing House, 1895), 18; Universalist Register,…1902, ed. Richard Eddy (Boston: Universalist Publishing House, 1902), 117.
13
Hanson, Our Women Workers, 493.
14
“Straub, Miss Maria,” in A Woman of the Century: Fourteen Hundred-Seventy Biographical Sketches Accompanied by Portraits of Leading American Women in All Walks of Life, ed. Francis E. Willard and Mary A. Livermore (Buffalo, NY: Charles Wells Moulton, 1893), 698–99; “Deaths,” Chicago Daily Tribune, June 30, 1897, 5.
15
History of DeKalb County, Indiana, 503.
16
“Michigan, Marriages, 1822-1995,” index, FamilySearch, Soloman M. Straub and Phebe Bell, 08 Sep 1864, accessed December 1, 2013, https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/FCF2-9V9; “United States Census, 1870,” index and images, FamilySearch, Solomon Straub in household of Aaron Harwood, Michigan, United States; citing p. 27, family 236, NARA microfilm publication M593, FHL microfilm 000552167, accessed December 1, 2013, ; “Arthur M. Straub,” in Columbia Exposition Dedication Ceremonies Memorial (Chicago: Metropolitan Art Engraving and Publishing, 1893), 573.
17
See announcements of Straub’s compositions in “Contemporary Literature,” Ladies Repository, 28 (December 1868): 473. In the preface to his book, Good Cheer!, Straub claims to have “successfully used [the sequence of instruction] for many years,” suggesting that he taught in Dowagiac. S. W. Straub, Good Cheer! For Singing Classes, Conventions, Choirs, Day Schools, Societies, Etc. (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1874), 2.
18
Mathews, A Hundred Years, 640–49, 714; “Obituaries: United States,” in The American Annual Cyclopaedia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1870, vol. 10 (New York: D. Appleton, 1872), 582; “Northwestern Items,” Chicago Republican, July 1, 1870, 2; “Our Neighbors,” Elkhart Weekly Review, Thursday, August 18, 1870, 2.
19
Root, Story, 142, 145–46; Mathews, A Hundred Years, 92, 402–4, 580.
20
Catalog of the Chicago Musical College: 1872-1873/National Normal Musical Institute: Session of 1872 (Chicago: Evening Post Book and Job Printing House, 1872), 23; “Music. The Second Institute Concert,” Chicago Daily Tribune, August 14, 1873, 3.
21
Mathews, A Hundred Years, 551, 580; A. Ehrlich, Celebrated Pianists of the Past and Present: A Collection of One Hundred and Thirty-Nine Biographies, with Portraits (Philadelphia, PA: Theodore Presser, 1894), 380–81; Newton Bateman, “Seventh Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction,” in Reports made to the General Assembly of Illinois, at its Twenty-Sixth Season (vol. 2) (Springfield, IL: Illinois Journal Printing Office, 1869), 841; Grove Music Online, s.v. “Zerrahn, Carl,” accessed July 30, 2010, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.lib-proxy.calvin.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/A2087830?q=Zerrahn%2C+Carl&search=quick&pos=1&_start=1#firsthit.
22
“Music. The Second Institute Concert,” 1873, 3.
23
“Business Directory: Musical,” Lansing State Republican, May 18, 1871 to September 12, 1872, n.p. Pheobe was a soprano soloist who sometimes performed with Straub. “Musical Institute,” Wichita Daily Eagle, December 29, 1885, 3.
24
“First Universalist Church of Lansing Records in the Unitarian Universalist Church of Greater Lansing Archives,” uucglarchives.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/c1.pdf, accessed January 7, 2014, 1; Willard and Livermore, 699.
25
“United States Census, 1880,” index and images, FamilySearch, S. W. Straub, Chicago, Cook, Illinois, United States; citing sheet 62B, family 0, NARA microfilm publication T9-0186, accessed December 11, 2013, https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/MXNN-V5R; “United States Social Security Death Index,” index, FamilySearch, Stanley Straub, May 1964; citing US Social Security Administration, Death Master File, database, Alexandria, Virginia: National Technical Information Service, ongoing, accessed December 12, 2013, 7.
26
History of DeKalb County, Indiana, 504; “Straub, Miss Maria,” A Woman of the Century, 1893, 699; Universalist Register,… 1897, ed. Richard Eddy (Boston: Universalist Publishing House, 1895), 122; E. R. Hanson, Our Women Workers, 1884, 492; Both Mary and Maria suffered from poor health due to Malaria contracted as children in Indiana. Neither could sustain careers and relied on family for their care.
27
Universalist Register,… 1896, ed. Richard Eddy (Boston: Universalist Publishing House, 1896), 16; The Columbian Congress of the Universalist Church: Papers and Addresses at the Congress, Held as a Section of the World’s Congress Auxiliary of the Columbian Exposition, 1893 (Boston: Universalist Publishing House, 1894), 353; “The Universalist Sunday-School Convention,” Indianapolis Sentinel, June 11, 1877, p. 4; “Pastor and People,” Daily Inter Ocean, June 8, 1878, 9; S. W. Straub, Temperance Battle Songs: For the Use of Choirs and Glee Clubs in All Kinds of Temperance Meetings (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1883).
28
S. W. Straub, “Ear Training,” Paper read at the convention of the Indiana Music Teachers Association, June 23, 1897, reprinted in Werner’s Magazine 20, no. 1 (1897): 35; “Social Notices,” Daily Inter Ocean, May 21, 1890, 3; “Universalist Women in Session,” Daily Inter Ocean, May 28, 1896, 8; “Music Teachers’ Association,” Chicago Daily Tribune, June 9, 1889, 28.
29
“Obituary,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 4, 1899, 7.
30
31
Columbian Exposition Dedication Ceremonies Memorial (Chicago: Metropolitan Art Engraving, 1893), 573; “School of Piano” [advertisement], Sacramento Daily Union, October 3, 1889, 2; “From Outlying Wards,” Daily Inter Ocean, August 25, 1889, 14.
32
“Rochelle Doings,” Rockford Daily Register-Gazette, March 16, 1898, 3; “Of our Neighbors,” Rockford Daily Register-Gazette, April 19, 1898, 8; “Social Events,” Sacramento Daily Record-Union, September 11, 1897, 6; “Death of Prof. Straub,” Fort Wayne Journal Gazette, September 8, 1899, 5; The Detroit Society Address Book: Elite Family Directory, Club Membership, 1900-1901 (New York: Dau, 1900), 138; S. W. Straub, Straub’s New Model for Singing Classes, Conventions, Institutes, High Schools, Normal Schools, Academies, Colleges, and Singing Societies (Detroit, MI: S. W. Straub, 1901 [originally published in Chicago in 1894]). Bell likely was a distant cousin to Arthur on his mother’s side of the family. She moved to Chicago in July of 1890 to study music and work as a bookkeeper for Straub. “Social and Personal,” Sacramento Daily Record-Union, July 31, 1890, 2.
33
“United States World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918,” index and images, FamilySearch, Stanley Leroy Straub, 1917-1918; citing Chicago City no 17, Illinois, United States, NARA microfilm publication M1509 (Washington, DC: National Archives and Records. Administration, n.d.); FHL microfilm 1493510, accessed December 12, 2013, https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/K68F-7GN; “United States Census, 1940,” index and images, FamilySearch, Stanley L Straub in household of Everett B. Frain, Tallahassee, Election Precinct 11, Leon, Florida, United States; citing enumeration district (ED) 37-8, sheet 24B, family 525, NARA digital publication of T627, roll 597, accessed June 1, 2014, .
34
Advertisements in a late publication by Straub list 30 books, 5 vocal solos, 15 songs with chorus, 6 vocal ensembles, 4 keyboard works, 5 Sunday school programs, and 8 sacred and 6 secular choral/vocal collections composed, arranged, edited, or compiled by Straub. S. W Straub. Song Magic and Star Singer Combined (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1896), front matter and back cover.
35
See, e.g., S. W. Straub, Living Fountain: A New and Choice Collection of Sunday School Songs: Also Excellent Pieces for Praise and Prayer Meetings and the Home (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1884), 2.
36
37
“Happy Moments” [advertisement], in Ever New! (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1885), front matter.
38
S. W. Straub and Maria Straub, “The Lost Child,” in The Golden Rule: A Collection of Songs, Hymns, and Chants for Sunday-schools, Juvenile Concerts, Festivals, Anniversaries, and the Home Circle (Cincinnati, OH: John Church, 1872), 151–53; S. W. Straub and Maria Straub, “Hail! Beautiful Banner!” (Dowagiac, MI: S. W. Straub, 1868); “Contemporary Literature,” Ladies Repository, 28 (December 1868): 473.
39
“New Music,” Song Messenger of the North-West, May 1868, 7; C. M. Wyman, The Palm: A Collection of Sacred Music for Choirs, Singing Schools and Conventions (Chicago: Root and Cady, 1870), 52, 316.
40
S. W. Straub, “Mother Come Home to Me” (Cleveland, OH: S. Brainard & Sons, 1871); S. W. Straub, “Oh Let Me In” (Boston: G. D. Russell, 1871); S. W. Straub, My Childhood’s Home (Detroit, MI: C. J. Whitney, 1872); S. W. Straub, Little Blue Eyes (Cincinnati, OH: John Church, 1873); S. W. Straub, We Shall Know Each Other Better, By and By (Chicago: Chandler & Curtiss, 1874). S. Brainard and Sons acquired the Root and Cady sheet music catalog in 1871 after the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the company’s physical assets. Carder, George F. Root, 181.
41
Straub, The Golden Rule, passim; “The ‘Golden Rule’” [advertisement], The Christian Union 6, no. 19 (1872, October 30): 369. Root and Cady sold their book catalog to John Church and Company in February 1872. Carder, George F. Root, 181. Other composers represented in The Golden Rule were among the most prominent gospel hymn writers in the country. J. H. Hall, Biography of Gospel Song and Hymn Writers (New York: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1914), 13–14.
42
Straub, Good Cheer!, 3, 29, 71. E. Tower Root and William Lewis established their company after Root and Cady dissolved following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. Former business associates came together once again when Root and Lewis, George F. Root and Sons, and Chandler and Curtiss merged to form Root and Sons Music Company in 1875. Carder, George F. Root, 181.
43
I determined this date based on the appearance of the company periodical, The Song Friend, in 1879 and the address listed for Straub’s home and business. “United States Census, 1880,” index and images, FamilySearch, S. W. Straub, Chicago, Cook, Illinois, United States; citing sheet 62B, family 0, NARA microfilm publication T9-0186, accessed January 20, 2014, ; “Song Friend” [advertisement], Kalamazoo Gazette, November 9, 1880, 3.
44
See addresses listed in S. W. Straub, “Mother in our Angel Home” [sheet music] (S. W. Straub, 1882), back cover; “Best Books” [advertisement], Journal of Education 20, no. 14 (1884): 236; Straub, Song Magic and Star Singer Combined, 1.
45
S. W. Straub, “Military Galop” [sheet music] (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1882), back cover. The back cover advertisement lists several works available from Straub that formerly were published by other firms.
46
Straub, “Mother in our Angel Home,” cover; Straub, “Military Galop,” cover.
47
Hall, 125–28.
48
[Stillman obituary], The Journal-Telephone, March 1, 1917, 1. Straub probably met Towne and Stillman in 1870 while attending the Normal Musical Institute. Root, Story, 145.
49
“Oregon, Death Index, 1903-1998,” index, FamilySearch, accessed January 11, 2014, https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/VZHZ-L6R; William Werschkul, 1933; “United States Census, 1880,” index and images, FamilySearch, William Werschkul, Muskegon, Michigan, United States; citing sheet 182D, family 0, NARA microfilm publication T9-0597, accessed February 17, 2014, .
50
“Pencil Points,” Muskegon Daily Chronicle, June 11, 1880, 3; The Lakeside Annual Directory of the City of Chicago (Chicago: Chicago Directory Company, 1887), 1629; “United States Census, 1900,” index and images, FamilySearch, William F. Werschkul in household of Phoebe E Devoll, Precinct 51 Portland city Ward 11, Multnomah, Oregon, United States; citing sheet, family 61, NARA microfilm publication T623, FHL microfilm 1241351, accessed January 11, 2014, .
51
Arthur M. Straub, “Be kind to Bessie! or, the Dying Mother’s Request” (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1885).
52
See catalog descriptions in S. W. Straub, Good Luck, for Singing Classes, Conventions, Normal Schools, Academies, Institutes, Colleges and the Home (S. W. Straub, Chicago, 1890), back matter.
53
“The Song Messenger” [advertisement], in P. Benson, Sr., A Book (Chicago: Geo. F. Root & Sons, 1874), 112; “Music,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 27, 1872, 7.
54
“Literary Notes,” The Educational Weekly 7, no. 145 (January 22, 1880), 126.
55
“The Song Friend” [flyer], inserted into S. W. Straub, Concord: Containing Theory, Illustrations and Practical Exercises in the Elements of Vocal Music: Sacred and Secular Choruses, Glees, Part-Songs, Quartets, Anthems, Hymn-Tunes and Chants (Chicago, S. W. Straub, 1883).
56
“Straub, Miss Maria,” A Woman of the Century, 699; Columbian Exposition, 1893, 573.
57
“New Publications,” July 14, 1888, 4; “The Song Friend” [flyer].
58
“Pen and Press,” Northern Christian Advocate, January 20, 1897, 42; S. W. Straub, Happy Moments and Woodland Echoes Combined (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1896); Straub, Song Magic and Star Singer Combined.
59
“Latest Popular Waltz and Two-Step,” Northwestern, April 8, 1897, 10.
60
The Detroit Society Address Book, 1900, 138; S. W. Straub, Straub’s New Model, 1901. All of the works advertised in the 1901 edition of Straub’s New Model were published prior to Solomon’s death. See 1903 edition of S. W. Straub, Happy Moments and Woodland Echoes: For Public Schools, Seminaries, Normal Schools, and Juvenile Classes (Chicago: Echo Music, 1903).
61
Birge, History of Public School Music, 29–32; Hash, “George F. Root’s Normal Musical Institute,” 276–277. Amateur singers generated additional income for the institutes and provided singers for the large choral works.
62
63
Leaders of conventions and institutes frequently sold their products during these gatherings. Keene, A History of Music Education, 131–32.
64
“Business of our City,” Muskegon Chronicle, March 19, 1874, 1; “[notice],” Muskegon Chronicle, May 13, 1875, 6.
65
“Professor Straub’s Musical Convention,” Rochester Spy, as cited by Marshall County Republican, October 11, 1877, 2.
66
“Business of our City,” 1874, 1; “[notice],” 1875, 6; “From Churubusco, Indiana,” Daily Inter Ocean, November 22, 1875, 3; “Professor Straub’s Musical Convention,” 1877, 2; “Straub’s Normal Musical Institute,” Elkhart Daily Review, May 17, 1878, 2; “Amusements,” Chicago Daily Tribune, November 30, 1878, 3; Fort Wayne Sentinel, December 8, 1879, 1; Goshen Democrat, January 11, 1882, 7; “Musical Notes at Home,” Chicago Daily Tribune, November 26, 1889, 21; “The City,” Fort Wayne Sentinel, September 29, 1885, 4; “A Musical Convention” [advertisement], Sacramento Daily Record-Union, February 13, 1886, 8; “In General,” Delphi Journal, August 26, 1886, 15; “Musical Notes,” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 3, 1889, 28; “Musical Notes,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 19, 1889, 28; “Musical Convention,” Portland Commercial, August 1, 1889, 4; “Musical Notes,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 24, 1893, 26; “[announcement],” Racine Journal, May 7, 1896, 8.
67
“A Musical Convention” [advertisement], February 13, 1886, 8. Phoebe Straub, her sister Catherine Bowling, and brother-in-law Hiram D. Bowing also made trip and performed on the final concert on February 17. “Brief Notes,” Sacramento Daily Record-Union, February 18, 1886, 3.
68
“The Summer Assemblies for 1890,” The Chautauquan 11, no. 4 (1890): 490; “Boating at Chautauqua,” Omaha World Herald, July 2, 1890, 1; “A Western Chautauqua,” Daily Inter Ocean, July 5, 1890, 9.
69
“Black Hills Chautauqua,” Omaha World Herald, August 19, 1890, 4; “Hot Springs Chautauqua,” Omaha World Herald, August 28, 1890, 2.
70
“Other Chautauqua Assemblies,” The Chautauquan 19, no. 4 (1894): 511; “For the Second Year,” Rockford Morning Star, May 20, 1899, 8.
71
“The American Normal Musical Institute,” Manford’s Magazine 32, no. 5 (1888): 319. Announcements of Straub’s institute in 1888 identified the event as the fifteenth annual session. Although the local newspaper call the events in Muskegon, Michigan, in 1874 and 1875 conventions, Straub might have considered these his first institutes.
72
“City and Vicinity Notes,” Marshall County Republican, July 19, 1877, 3.
73
“Music,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 20, 1877, 11; “Music,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 2, 1877, 11.
74
“City and Vicinity Notes,” Marshall County Republican, July 19, 1877, 3; “City and Vicinity Notes” and C. Whitmore, “Specimen Straubery,” Marshall County Republican, August 23, 1877, 1.
75
“Local Brevities,” Elkhart Evening Review, February 5, 1878, 3.
76
“Local Brevities,” Elkhart Evening Review, July 8, 1878, 3.
77
“Local Brevities,” Elkhart Evening Review, July 25, 1878, 3; S. W. Straub, The Convention and Choir (Chicago: Jansen, McClurg and Company, 1877). Friday matinee concerts were also popular at Straub’s Institute in Plymouth the year before. “Matinée Concert,” Marshall County Republican, July 19, 1877, 3; “Saturday,” Elkhart Weekly Review, Thursday, May 30, 1878, 4; “Straub’s Musical Normal,” Elkhart Evening Review, July 13, 1878, 3; “Local Brevities,” Elkhart Evening Review, August 10, 1878, 3.
78
“Music,” Elkhart Weekly Review, May 30, 1878, 4.
79
“Local Brevities,” Elkhart Evening Review, August 3, 1878, 3.
80
“Local Brevities,” July 25, 1878, 3.
81
“Local Brevities,” Elkhart Daily Review, June 24, 1879, 3; “State News,” The Educational Weekly 9, no. 202 (1881): 317. “A Musical Normal at Goshen, Ind.” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 10, 1882, 8; “[A Musical Institute],” Ottawa Free Trader, August 5, 1882, 1; “State and Vicinity,” Muskegon Chronicle, July 8, 1884, 3; “The American Normal Musical Institute,” New Ulm Review, June 3, 1885; 1; “Musical Institute,” Wichita Daily Eagle, December 29, 1885, 3; “Normal Musical Institute” [advertisement], Sacramento Daily Union, March 3, 1886, 2; “The American Normal Musical Institute,” New Ulm Review, May 19, 1886, 8; “Matters of Music,” Chicago Daily Tribune,” July 17, 1887, 3; “The American Normal Musical Institute,” Manford’s Magazine 32, no. 5 (May 1888): 319; “Musical Notes,” Chicago Daily Tribune, June 9, 1889, 28.
82
“The American Normal Musical Institute,” [advertisement], in Straub, Concord, 1883, inside front cover; “The American Normal Musical Institute,” June 3, 1885, 1.
83
“Normal Musical Institute,” March 3, 1886, 2.
84
“School of Piano” [advertisement], Sacramento Daily Record-Union, September 30, 1889, 2.
85
“Hot Springs Chautauqua,” August 28, 1890, 2.
86
“City and Country,” Goshen Democrat, February 14, 1883, 3; “American Normal Musical Institute,” May 19, 1886, 8.
87
“Music Department of John Church Company” [advertisement], Music 9, (April 1896): 687; A. T. Andreas, History of Cook County from the Earliest Period to the Present Time (Chicago: A. T. Andreas, 1884), 644.
88
89
“Wardner Williams,” in Music and Musicians in Chicago: The City’s Leading Artists, Organizations and Art Buildings, Progress and Development, ed. Florence Ffrench (Chicago: Florence Ffrench, 1899), 218–19.
90
James M. Trotter, Music and Some Highly Musical People (Boston: Lee and Shepherd, 1881), 323.
91
Mathews, A Hundred Years, 666; “Home News,” Musical Courier, July 3, 1889, 8.
92
“Musical Notes,” June 9, 1889, 28. I found no evidence of the American Normal Musical Institute after this date.
93
Birge, History of Public School Music, 134–35; Keene, A History of Music Education, 214.
94
Keene, A History of Music Education, 220, 227–28. From the 1880s to the mid-1900s, it was common for elementary classroom teachers to provide music instruction under the guidance of a music supervisor.
95
Lowell Mason, Manual of the Boston Academy of Music, for Instruction in the Elements of Vocal Music, on the System of Pestalozzi (Boston: Carter, Hendee, 1834). Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was an early pioneer of child-centered instruction who developed pedagogy that focused on children learning inductively through their senses in order to develop the moral, physical, and mental faculties. Pestalozzi believed that music was especially useful in developing moral and patriotic feelings among children. Mark and Gary, A History of Music Education, 123–25.
96
Mason, Manual, 6–14, 25–29, 37; Hash, “Root’s Normal Musical Institute,” 268, 278; Howard Ellis, “Lowell Mason and the Manual of the Boston Academy of Music,” Journal of Research in Music Education 3, no. 1 (Spring 1955): 3–10.
97
George F. Root, The Normal Musical Hand-book: A Book of Instruction and Reference for Teachers of Notation, Voice Culture, Harmony and Church Music, in Classes (Cincinnati, OH: John Church, 1872).
98
S. W. Straub, “Ear Training,” 36, 38.
99
Compare, e.g., the instructional material in Straub, Good Cheer!; Straub, Straub’s New Model; George F. Root, The Sabbath Bell, a Collection of Music for Choirs, Musical Associations, Singing-Schools, and the Home Circle (New York: Mason Brothers, 1856); and Mason, Manual of the Boston Academy of Music. In the Preface of Good Cheer!, Straub stated that he had “successfully used [the instructional sequence] for many years,” suggesting that he was familiar with the Manual of the Boston Academy of Music before attending Root’s Normal Musical Institute in 1870.
100
Straub, Convention and Choir, 1877, 4; Reprinted in S. W. Straub, Woodland Echoes: A Choice Collection of Vocal Music for All Public Schools, Seminaries, Academies and Singing Classes (Chicago: Jansen, McClurg and Company, 1878), 12.
101
S. W. Straub, The Teacher’s Guide to Concord (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1883), 3–6; S. W. Straub, The Singing Teacher’s Helper (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1885), 3–6. These books are identical except that The Teacher’s Guide to Concord includes instructions for each piece in the text.
102
Straub, Convention and Choir, 4. Straub’s emphasis on efficiency in the classroom eventually became a mantra of the social efficiency movement during the progressive era. Herbert M. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum, 1893-1958, 3rd ed. (New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2004), 17–20.
103
Straub, Teacher’s Guide to Concord, 6–11. Straub’s process for developing aural skills is almost identical to that recommended by Edwin E. Gordon when teaching learning sequence patterns in his Music Learning Theory. Bruce Dalby, About Music Learning Theory (Albuquerque, NM: 2008), “Learning Sequence Activities,” Gordon Institute for Music Learning, accessed May 16, 2014, giml.org/docs/AboutMLT.pdf.
104
Compare Mason, Manual of the Boston Academy of Music, vi–xi; Straub, Good Cheer!, 3–4; S. W. Straub, Song Magic for Singing Classes, Day Schools, Conventions, Choirs, Societies, Institutes and the Home (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1881), 3–8; S. W. Straub, Splendor!: For Singing Classes, Conventions, Normal Schools, Day Schools, Institutes, Academies, Colleges and the Home (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1888).
105
S. W. Straub and W. F. Werschkul, Ever New! (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1885), 15, 24, 26–27.
106
Straub, Convention and Choir, 4, 13–24. Other books introduced sixteenths before dotted eights. See, e.g., S. W. Straub, Happy Moments for Public Schools, Seminaries, Normal Schools, and Juvenile Classes (Chicago: S. W. Straub, 1885), 27.
107
See, e.g., Straub, Good Cheer!, 5; Straub, Concord 3–7; Straub, Splendor, 4–5; Straub, Straub’s New Model, 4–5.
108
Straub, Concord, 4.
109
Ibid., 22; Straub, Splendor, 15–24, 38–39; Straub and Werschkul, Ever New, 11–22; Straub, Straub’s New Model, 11, 187.
110
See instructional material in Straub, Good Cheer!; S. W. Straub, Star Singer: For Singing Schools, Musical Institutes, Conventions and Societies (Chicago: Jansen & McClurg, 1879); S. W. Straub, Song Magic; Concord; Splendor; Straub’s New Model.
111
Straub, Splendor, 7–8. Straub’s directions to keep beat and tonic “fixed in the mind” is very similar to Edwin E. Gordon’s definition of “audiation” in Music Learning Theory [MLT]. Dalby, About MLT, “Audiation.”
112
See, e.g., Straub, Concord, 39–44; Straub, Straub’s New Model, 188–191.
113
Straub, Splendor, 5, 8, 14, 18, 24; Straub, Straub’s New Model, 14–15.
114
Nathaniel D. Gould, Church Music in America, Comprising Its History and Its Peculiarities at Different Periods, with Cursory Remarks on Its legitimate Use and Its Abuse (Boston: A. N. Johnson, 1853), 94, 122.
115
Bradley L. Green, “Andrew Law’s Select Harmony (1779 Edition): The Context of a Late Eighteenth Century Tune Book,” Journal of Historical Research in Music Education 32, no. 2 (2011), 178.
116
Songs published in Straub’s books for children in Sunday schools and public schools appeared in closed score with the melody in the top voice. See, e.g., S. W. Straub, Living Fountain; S. W. Straub, Happy Moments and Woodland Echoes Combined.
117
See Kliebard, Struggle, 17–20.
118
Compare Straub’s pedagogical methods to those of Edwin E. Gordon as described by Dalby, About MLT, 2008, n.p. Straub’s method for writing time signatures with the bottom figure representing the note that gets one beat appears in some present-day teaching materials. See, e.g., Konnie K. Saliba, Accent on Orff: An Introductory Approach (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991).