Unregulated Artisanal Mining and Threats to Environmental Peacebuilding in Mazowe District,Mashonaland Central Province,Zimbabwe

Abstract

This study assessed the effects of unregulated artisanal gold mining on environmental security and environmental peacebuilding in the Mazowe District of Mashonaland Central Province, Zimbabwe. This was a qualitative study and had a sample of 75 participants. In-depth interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and observations were used to collect data. Key findings were that unregulated artisanal mining in the Mazowe area was fueling environmental insecurities. These insecurities manifested as social, political, and economic conflicts affecting communities. The environmental conflicts associated with unregulated artisanal mining in the district are fueled by many actors, including the political elites. The study concluded that these environmental impacts have both short-term and long-term implications for environmental security and environmental peacebuilding. The study recommends a participatory approach to addressing the environmental challenges and to adopt a systems approach that considers the broader political economy of artisanal mining in the district.

Keywords

unregulated artisanal mining environment environmental security human security community security peacebuilding

Introduction

Artisanal mining has become the primary economic activity for many people in Zimbabwe, especially the youth. Since around 2018, artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) has overshadowed the output of large-scale miners. However, the extent of environmental degradation remains a persistent concern for many scholars and environmental practitioners alike (Bhebhe, 2020). Mushanawani (2019) highlighted the widespread effects of illegal mining on water bodies in communities. In some instances, peacebuilding research overlooked environmental factors, but some scholars noted that highlighting environmental problems can encourage cooperation and help address conflicts at different levels in society (Pact, 2014; Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development [IGF], 2017). Studies on environmental cooperation and peacebuilding have mainly focused on international efforts to combat climate change (Maguya et al., 2025; Mitchell & Zawahri, 2015). Additionally, there is an increasing body of literature on artisanal mining and environmental degradation. Scholars like Matiashe (2020) have addressed the environmental impacts of illegal mining on natural flora, fauna, rivers, and landscapes. However, none of these studies directly linked environmental degradation to peacebuilding or to conflicts arising from environmental insecurity. Ncube-Phiri et al. (2015) examined the extent of environmental destruction in the Mzingwane District of Matabeleland South.

Another strand of scholarly engagement on the effects of artisanal mining on the environment focuses on deforestation. Alvarez-Berrios and Mitchell Aide (2015) argued that the contribution of illegal mining to deforestation was largely under-researched and under-reported. In Zimbabwe, several scholars highlighted the ecological challenges associated with unregulated gold mining, including deforestation, water pollution, and river siltation (Makwasha, 2020). Makwasha (2020) specifically focused on the impact of unregulated gold mining in the Old Mutare area of Mutasa District in Manicaland. The focus of these studies was primarily on human agency in causing environmental degradation through illegal mining without necessarily paying attention to the broader peace and security implications. In a study related to pollution and deforestation, Makwerere et al. (2018) profiled how unregulated artisanal mining had caused widespread water pollution in selected districts in Mashonaland Central province of Zimbabwe.

Other scholars have also engaged extensively with climate security and peace in different parts of the world. However, these studies have focused mainly on the role of political institutions in addressing climate change, as well as on its economic effects on financial institutions and communities, without sufficiently examining its implications for environmental peacebuilding (Institute of Economics and Peace, 2019). The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, running from 2015 to 2030, is also evidence that the discourse on climate security has been evolving in significant ways.

Another strand of scholarly engagement has focused on violence among the artisanal miners and how they are often labeled as criminals and violent gangs that only thrive on violating laid-down mining laws and regulations (Chipangura, 2017). Chipangura (2017) particularly highlighted the labeling of the artisanal miners as “makorokoza” which, if loosely translated, means people who are lawless and immoral. Chipangura (2017) cited instances in which the “makorokozas” have gone on to destroy crops and fields, causing huge and significant losses to the local communities.

Mazowe District in Zimbabwe is endowed with several natural resources, including minerals, particularly gold. This attracts a lot of mining activities in the area, both large-scale and small-scale mining operations. This study was interested in the activities of unregulated small-scale mining activities and how they affect environmental security and environmental peacebuilding in the Mazowe District of Zimbabwe.

Significance of the Study

Environmental integrity and sustainability in the context of climate change and population growth are matters of increasing concern. Small-scale and artisanal mining have significant environmental impacts in Zimbabwe, including the destruction of water bodies and cultural sites, despite the sector's contribution to the national gross domestic product (Maponga & Ngorima, 2003). It is, therefore, necessary to engage with this discourse on an ongoing basis to contribute to shaping policy and practice on artisanal mining in Zimbabwe and elsewhere.

This study resonates with several of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, especially Goals 6, 7, and 8, which refer to water, energy, and sustainable and equitable growth, respectively. There is a need to build an evidence base to inform policies that can help countries cope with environmental pressures while pursuing socio-economic objectives.

The nexus between the environment and sustainable development cannot be overemphasized. This study provides policymakers with the necessary evidence of the ravaging effects of unregulated artisanal mining in Zimbabwe and beyond. It provides compelling evidence for balancing the interests of artisanal miners and policymakers.

Environmental Security and Environmental Peacebuilding

The field of environmental peacebuilding has continued to grow over the years, with various scholars from different parts of the world bringing different but related perspectives on the subject. This has been necessitated by the realization that there is a close nexus between the environment and peace (Richmond, 2009). The focus on environmental security was necessitated by a reconceptualization of the concept of security within the international system in the post-Cold War era. Human security is a concept that gained currency at the end of the Cold War when inter-state security threats diminished.

This broader perspective on human security is echoed by former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, who argues that “economic development, social justice, environment protection, democratization and respect for human rights and the rule of law” be encompassed in the definition of human security (Annan, 2005) to ensure that “future generations … inherit a healthy environment.” Annan's conceptualization of the notion of human security resonates with that of the United Nations Development Programme, which listed seven specific critical dimensions of human security, namely food, health, personal, the environment, economic, political, and community.

Helen E. Putkitt also has a useful edited volume that speaks to the environmental and human security issues in the 21st century in Africa. Drawing on such case studies as the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Nigeria, South Africa, and Darfur (Sudan), Purkitt (2009) examined how resources have been a curse in Africa as they contribute to deadly conflicts that impinge on the human security of the citizens. In the DRC, for instance, it is the abundance of resources that is at the heart of the unending conflict afflicting the country.

The concept of environmental security, as discussed above, morphs into what is now widely referred to as environmental peacebuilding. The evolution of environmental peacebuilding can be traced to developments within the United Nations family of nations convened at the Stockholm Conference (United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1972), the first of its kind to reflect on human development and the environment. In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development published the Brundtland Report, which was titled “Our common future,” and again it focused on environmental preservation for a more stable and peaceful world. In 1987, the UN proclaimed the Rio Earth Summit and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 (Lejano, 2006). In perspective, these early developments at the International level marked the early evolution of the discourse on environmental peacebuilding.

A central thesis of the environmental peacebuilding movement is that it offers opportunities for cooperation as different actors get to build an understanding of the importance of environmental integrity as well as shared access to the environmental resources in a given space (Boutros-Ghali, 1992; Ide & Scheffran, 2013). With cooperation, all stakeholders are bound to derive mutual benefits from the environment while also promoting positive co-existence and preservation of the environmental resources (Carius, 2006; Maas et al., 2013). It feeds into other dominant discourses of peacebuilding. Conca and Dabelko (2002) argued that environmental peacebuilding is primarily concerned with environmental conflict resolution and positive-sum interactions on matters of mutual concern to stakeholders.

Theoretical Framework: Thomas Homer-Dixon's Environmental Scarcities

The theoretical framework for this study was derived from Thomas Homer-Dixon's Environmental Scarcities and Conflict thesis of 1994. In his 1994 article, entitled Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict’ Homer Dixon laid out his model, explaining how environmental factors can give rise to conflicts.

He believed that within the next 50 years (from 1994), the world's population would exceed 9 billion, whereas the global production could only increase five times. As a result, scarcities of resources will increase. Homer-Dixon (1994, p. 7) stated that, “Of the major environmental changes facing humankind, degradation and depletion of agricultural land, forests, water, and fish will contribute more to social turmoil in coming decades than will climate change or ozone depletion.”

Homer-Dixon (1994) argued that environmental scarcities include both renewable and non-renewable resources and that these have the potential to fuel conflict, especially where there is unequal resource distribution in a given community. Homer-Dixon (1994) further argued that analysts often discuss environmental depletion of natural resources from a climate change perspective, while forgetting or neglecting the political economy of resource access. This in itself creates an untenable situation where populations will eventually engage in violent confrontations primarily as a result of frustration.

Regulatory, Legal, and Policy Framework for Artisanal Mining

The Mines and Minerals Act [Chapter 21:05] is the most prominent piece of legislation governing mining activities in Zimbabwe. The Act provides for four major regulations that regulate the operations of entities, small-scale miners, and artisanal miners alike. These are the

Mining General Regulations;

Mining (Management and Safety) Regulations;

Mining (Health and Sanitation) Regulations; and

Mines and Minerals (Custom Milling Plants) Regulations.

Apart from the Mines and Minerals Act, the operations of miners at whatever scale must be within the confines of the Environmental Management Act [Chapter 20:27]. There are other relevant acts as well, which include the Gold Trade Act [Chapter 21:03] and the Precious Stones Act [Chapter 21:06]. A combination of all these Acts, as administered by various Departments, Agencies, and Ministries of the State, is meant to provide an enabling environment within which mining activities can take place within the borders of Zimbabwe.

Literature on Drivers of Unregulated Artisanal Mining in Zimbabwe

Unregulated artisanal mining refers to mining that is not regulated by law (Boadi et al., 2016). Various scholars have given several perspectives on the rise of artisanal gold mining, most of which is done illegally in parts of Africa. The reasons range from historical, economic, political, and governance issues. There are various reasons as to why illegal gold mining is rampant in different parts of the world. In Zimbabwe, Maponga and Ngorima (2003) found that artisanal mining has always been a feature of the Zimbabwean communities, even in pre-colonial times.

Some scholars have offered an economic perspective on the growth and spread of artisanal mining in Zimbabwe. They cite the gradual collapse of the agriculture sector, the ruinous Economic Structural Adjustment Programmes (ESAP), and the long period of political contestation that has ruined Zimbabwe's economic progress (Dreschler, 2001; Makwasha, 2020). Maponga (1997) submitted that illegal gold panning became a significant livelihood occupation for many as a response to the ever-worsening economic environment.

An interesting dimension was given by several scholars who observed that the agrarian reform in Zimbabwe at the turn of the new millennium actually did more than mere redistribution of land. Scholars found that the land redistribution opened up accessibility to ordinary citizens who then realized that the previous white settlers had exploited the land in many ways under the pretext of commercial farming production (Chari, 2013; Mkodzongi, 2013; Scoones, 2015). The land reform ended up opening up the artisanal mining industry to previously marginalized groups in the different parts of the country.

Another school of inquiry has grown around the involvement of the elite businesspeople and elite politicians who operate cartels of illegal gold panning, milling, buying, and selling throughout illegal mining sites in Zimbabwe (Mabhena, 2012; Mawowa, 2013). It is argued that the major reason why illegal mining has grown exponentially and why it is seemingly so difficult to arrest is because of the involvement of the top politicians and top business people who have the money to fend off the policy and other regulatory authorities like Environmental Management Agency (EMA). Transparency International Zimbabwe [TIZ] (2012, p. 44) noted that “illicit and corrupt dealings in the mining sector are largely rampant at the level of artisanal mining in Zimbabwe.”

Some scholars have also highlighted climate change and erratic rainfall patterns as a major driver of artisanal mining in Zimbabwe. Mkodzongi (2013) found that most people who venture into artisanal mining had lost confidence in agriculture because of the increasingly erratic rains as well as very poor soils in some communities.

Environmental Effects of Unregulated Mining

Scholars have argued that unregulated mining is a major driver of deforestation in many countries (Alvarez-Berrios & Mitchell Aide, 2015). Mawere (2011), who studies the effects of illegal mining in Manica province of Mozambique, found that unregulated mining posed both immediate and long-term effects on the environment, including a lot of vegetation including trees and water bodies like rivers and dams. Apart from that, illegal mining has also been flagged as a major polluter of water bodies. Mlambo (2019) found that “Zimbabwe's river systems and dams are heavily polluted to the extent that they are now endangering both aquatic and human life.” This observation was also picked by Makwerere et al. (2018) who lamented the widespread pollution of water bodies as a result of the illegal use of mercury and cyanide in districts in Mashonaland Central province.

Mercury contamination associated with small-scale gold mining and processing represents a major environmental and human health concern in eastern and southern Africa (van Straaten, 2000). The situation is so rampant in parts of Zimbabwe and the responsible authorities do not seem to be making efforts to address the problem. The United States Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA] (2014) found that illegal miners in the Mazowe area use mercury that was in very large quantities and thus affecting nearby water bodies, soil, and the whole ecosystem in general.

Methodology

The study used a qualitative research approach to explore the phenomenon of unregulated artisanal mining and its implications for environmental peacebuilding (Bors, 2018; Bryman, 2016; Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2018), employing an exploratory case study (Saunders et al., 2016). The qualitative methodology and case study design were chosen to allow an in-depth investigation of the complex and context-specific dynamics between unregulated artisanal mining and environmental peacebuilding in Mazowe District. The population of interest included various stakeholders in Mazowe District, specifically, the District Development Coordinator's Office workers, Environmental Management Agency personnel, Traditional Leaders, communities in areas where artisanal gold mining is taking place, Civil Society Organizations, the Police, and the artisanal miners themselves.

The participating sample for the study was 75. The study used non-probability sampling techniques to come up with a representative sample that guaranteed the trustworthiness of the research findings. Two primary non-probability sampling strategies were used, including purposive sampling, through which officers and individuals most likely to provide useful data for answering the research questions were selected. The second one systematically targeted small-scale artisanal miners along the Mazowe River, leading to focus group discussions (FGDs). A total of 10 in-depth interviews were carried out. Guba and Lincoln (2016) intimated that in-depth interviews can be face-to-face or over the phone or, in modern times, on any other technological platforms. A total of six FGDs were held, constituting affected communities as well as artisanal miners within the District. To augment the in-depth interviews and the FGDs, data were also collected through on-site observations in the artisanal mining areas. The observation method was an applicable data collection instrument in this qualitative study as it helped to corroborate findings from interactions with participants (Creswell, 2013; Saunders, 2014). The observations were mostly focused on the environmental effects of unregulated artisanal mining.

Findings were presented using thematic presentation and content analysis. This is primarily because the thematic analysis approach is mostly used in qualitative studies and it provides a more structured way of discussing and analyzing the research findings (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Creswell, 2013). Thematic presentation allowed for the systematic organization of data into key patterns and issues that emerged from interviews, observations, and document reviews, making it easier to interpret participants’ lived experiences. In addition, content analysis was employed to identify recurring themes, underlying meanings, and the frequency of certain ideas or concepts within the textual data. This enhanced the credibility and coherence of the findings.

The two methods ensured a rigorous and flexible approach to analyze data qualitatively, thereby capturing the socio-environmental and governance issues characterizing the artisanal mining context in Zimbabwe. In order to ensure the trustworthiness of the study, several things were taken into consideration. First, the study ensured triangulation across participant groups. This was reflected in the way the participants were distributed. There were voices from key office bearers in the district, the communities themselves (including the artisanal miners), and voices from civil society organizations as well. The study ensured acceptability by ensuring that all standard operating procedures relating to the study were strictly followed. The study observed key ethical considerations, and these are: informed consent, to do no harm, confidentiality, voluntary participation, and the right to withdraw.

Findings and Analysis

Dynamics of Unregulated Gold Mining in Mazowe District

The study found that Mazowe District in Mashonaland Central is a hive of unregulated mining activities. Unregulated gold mining by artisanal miners is mostly done in and around the Jumbo mining area,¹ Criston Bank, Manzou, Chiweshe, and along the Mazowe River. Those who mine along the Mazowe River rely mostly on alluvial gold mining, which involves extracting gold from the alluvial soils that are deposited along the river.

The study found that there was no proper social structure regarding the organization of the artisanal miners. In most cases, the most powerful assume leadership of their respective social groupings. In some other cases, there is no visible leader. It is merely a case of mutual trust and mutual respect. Under such circumstances, the study found that these groups that thrive on mutual respect are usually bound by their social ties or their places of origin. From the FGDs, it was found that the artisanal miners operating in the Mazowe district originate from different places, with people from the nearby communal areas like Chiweshe, Bindura, and Guruve being the predominant social groups. However, there are others who come from faraway places such as Mutare, Masvingo, Chipinge, Shurugwi, Gutu, and Gweru, just to mention a few. One participant from one of the FGDs mentioned that;

It all depends with the area you are operating in. In some areas you will find the local people dominating but in some areas you will find other people from distant places dominating, even those who speak different languages. Therefore, miners (illegal artisanal miners) will mine in groups that are built on trust.

The participants indicated that these social networks form the basis of their security mechanisms because the informal mining field is replete with dangers. Participants highlighted that there are powerful gangs who are mostly male-dominated who do not believe in hard work but rather in bullying and robbing the hardworking but vulnerable artisanal miners. Some of the participants submitted that

We have a challenge regarding people who do not want to work. They just thrive on robbing those who work hard and they take away their (gold) ore and in some instances they rob us of the hard-earned money.

They always rob us. Even if you ask all the artisanal miners in the Jumbo area about these robbers (Mabhudhi²), they will tell you that they are very evil these people.

Apart from the struggles at the hands of the unruly robbers, the artisanal miners also raised a supernatural dimension to the challenges they face. They highlighted that the area is generally endowed with sacred areas with spiritual significance to the communities in Mazowe. As a result, they highlighted that some of the threats they face are difficult to explain. Participants shared experiences that ranged from seeing dangerous snakes and other unexplained creatures in their adventures. Some also shared experiences of getting confused and getting lost in the process of exploring for gold in the Mazowe area. This was raised by participants from the FGD that was held in the Manzou area. This is an area that is revered and regarded as sacred by local communities. As a response to these challenges, the participants indicated that they use traditional snuff and salt to smear the areas they work in as a way of neutralizing the supernatural forces.

Forms of Artisanal Mining

The study was also keen to establish the forms of mining employed by these unregulated miners. The study found that most of the mining does not follow a strict code. Rather, the illegal miners are attracted by the amount of gold deposits in a given area as well. The deposits are not determined by any scientific means; they follow “bhande”³ until it is exhausted.

Another interesting perspective was shared by one of the artisanal miners who indicated that

It is not very difficult to determine where gold deposits are my brother. The Germans (early explorers) left many indirect signposts indicating where gold deposits could be found. They would either plant a certain species of trees or some beacons to show that a certain area has potential gold deposits. Therefore, when we see such signs we just follow them as clues showing gold deposits for us. Nevertheless, sometimes we do not really follow these clues.

What is clear though is the fact that exploration of mining sites by artisanal miners is not predictable. Some rely on residual colonial infrastructure, while others simply prospect without necessarily using any scientific methods. This is in itself destructive to the environment, as the miners simply dig indiscriminately, disturbing the natural flora and fauna.

The Mining Techniques

In most cases, the techniques are rudimentary, and they involve serious digging on the part of the miners. This digging usually occurs on pre-prospected sites using various sources of intelligence that are not backed by science, as highlighted above. Mazowe district is classified as ecological Region 1, and it receives significant rainfall. The participants mostly use tools like pick mattocks and metal digging sticks, and sometimes use hora/madhora⁴ to detonate rocks and pave the way for further digging.

The participants highlighted that digging can go as deep as 20 m or more in extreme cases and that, in ordinary case scenarios, they can dig 5–10 m going down and then go horizontally once they get to the gold seam, which they commonly referred to as bhande. The deeper they dig, the more water is accumulated in the pits. The participants indicated that they use “pum pums”⁵ to dig further down and generators to clear the accumulating water in the pits.

It was noted that most of the artisanal miners used elementary tools in their work, and these have a tendency to pollute the environment, including water bodies and the air. The analysis also showed that most of the artisanal miners are located along squatter camps along water bodies and this was primarily because they use a lot of water to process the gold ore into “purified” gold and this was in sync with Dreschler (2001) who also found that most of the artisanal miners disregard environmental protection protocols in pursuit of their narrow interest and this is detrimental to the interests of the wider community. The same can be said of the activities of artisanal miners in Mazowe District.

Undermining Environmental Security

The artisanal mining activities in Mazowe District have led to damaging environmental effects. From the study, it was found that there are several challenges experienced in the environment.

Water resources. Water resources have been a major casualty of unregulated artisanal mining in the district. The study found that the use of banned substances like mercury and cyanide was very widespread. This corroborates with the findings of Makwerere et al. (2018) who lamented the widespread misuse of the two substances for the cleaning of gold in Bindura District. The same is also happening in Mazowe District, where some of the artisanal miners use mercury and cyanide for the processing of the gold ore extracted from the mining sites.

Quizzed on why they use these banned substances, the artisanal miners argued that they were the most reliable substances for the cleaning of gold and that they gave them the highest returns. Two of the artisanal miners had this to say during FGDs at Manzou and Jumbo mining sites, respectively;

These substances help us to maximise on outputs and thus making money. We do not really mind the environmental effects that are caused for as long as we have made money.

These substances are very efficient and we even get them from those who buy the gold from us so that we enhance production. We are aware of the challenges posed to the environment but this is how we survive. If we don’t do that we will suffer.

The use of these outlawed chemicals is a major threat to environmental security, particularly the numerous rivers that flow through the district. Dams and weirs are not spared either. This has left some areas struggling for clean potable water in the district. Communities downstream of the Mazowe River are struggling for clean water for domestic use. The artisanal miners in the Christon Bank area have been the biggest abusers of these banned chemicals. This is damaging because this is where the river starts from and then flows to the North East and eventually into Mozambique.

Water is a major resource for human security, and the Mazowe River provides water to several districts in Mashonaland Central Province and in Mozambique. If the quality of water in this river continues to deteriorate, it means the quality of life of communities that depend on it will also deteriorate. Apart from the main Mazowe River, the study found that there are several other smaller tributaries that flow into the Mazowe River that are also being affected by the use of mercury and cyanide from these unregulated and illegal mining activities.

Destruction of social order and ancestral places of significance. Artisanal miners have not spared places of ancestral and spiritual significance in the area. Traditional authorities interviewed during the study highlighted that the artisanal miners were in the habit of disrespecting the spiritual arenas found in the district, especially the Mbuya Nehanda shrines that are found near Christon Bank. The participants indicated that the issue had been taken up with the Minister of Home Affairs and Cultural Heritage, as the traditional leaders sought the preservation of these areas of significance.

Artisanal miners are in the habit of disrespecting graveyards and places of mostly traditional worship as they dig almost everywhere in search of gold. Traditional leaders lamented this behavior by the artisanal miners. One of the traditional leaders had this to say;

My community has been destroyed by these unregulated artisanal miners. Some of them are local youth but the majority are new and I do not know where they come from. They have destroyed every place including the sacred places that we have preserved for years. What is more painful is that they do not bother to pay royalties (kupetera)⁶ to us traditional leaders.

There is a strong belief among the traditional leaders that the challenges that the communities are facing, such as erratic rains, the drying up of the Mazowe Dam, and a lot of other occurrences, are because of these unregulated artisanal miners who disrespect cultural values. The traditional leaders also believe that there are a lot of artisanal miners who have been killed and buried in some of the disused pits, particularly at Jumbo mine, who have not been declared to the police nor the traditional authorities and that there is a need for spiritual cleansing of the area.

The chiefs also lamented the fact that these unregulated artisanal miners, as they are disrespecting sacred places by also engaging in prostitution in these respected areas. It can be noted that although the primary challenge facing the communities in Mazowe District is unregulated artisanal mining, it is now leading to other conflicts. This is in line with the earlier findings of Carius (2006) as well as Maas et al. (2013), who observed that environmental peacebuilding is key to sustainable peace.

The chiefs also highlighted that another serious challenge with artisanal mining was infidelity and the collapse of marriages in the area. This was because when the artisanal miners get paid after selling their gold, they spend lavishly and in the process tempt even the married women. This is regardless of the fact that even the artisanal miners themselves would be having families. These social vices have undermined the peace in the communities, and this must be addressed if the communities are to have their peace again.

Disruptive effects on environmental peacebuilding. Various impacts of artisanal mining on environmental peacebuilding were picked from the study. These range from social, environmental, and community security issues.

Community security. The study found that the communities were increasingly becoming very vulnerable to the illegal mining activities that were taking place in the area. The communities reported that they were also losing their livestock, especially small animals like goats, as well as chickens, and in most cases, they are stolen by the miners. The villagers who participated in the FGDs reported that they no longer felt safe because most of these artisanal miners are not from the local communities and this made it very difficult to trace the offenders. One participant from an FGD said that;

The most difficult part is that these people are just known as makorokoza (illegal miners). The majority of them use nicknames or fictitious names and thus making it very difficult to identify them. When they commit crimes we do not know where they go. That is why most cases of theft are never resolved even if reported to the police.

Apart from the security of persons, domestic and wild animals are also endangered as a result of the deep pits that are dug by the artisanal miners and are often left uncovered. Participants in the study reported that several people have been injured as well as domestic animals and had to be rescued by fellow villagers. These insecurities are caused by the haphazard approaches used by the illegal miners.

Water bodies. Rampant and unregulated mining activities in the district have also affected most water bodies. Villagers and traditional leaders who were consulted expressed apprehension at the quality of the water from the various water bodies in the district, as they felt that most of the water is now contaminated with dangerous substances. Yet they also indicated that they had very little choice and were forced to use the same contaminated waters because they cannot afford to buy purified water. Some villagers even went as far as claiming that some of their domestic animals were now contracting unexplained diseases because they were drinking from these contaminated sources. One participant even linked some unexplained cattle skin diseases to the contaminated waters as a result of unregulated artisanal mining.

Apart from animals dying, the study found that major water sources like Mazowe Dam itself and its tributaries and other sources were being affected by siltation, as some of the artisanal miners resort to riverbank alluvial gold surfing. These actions have seen the miners destroying natural vegetation along the Mazowe River Bank and thus fueling siltation. The villagers pointed to the low water levels in the Mazowe Dam, even at the peak of rain seasons in the district. They argued that this was primarily because of these artisanal mining activities in the district.

It is creating a vicious cycle where the artisanal miners are exploiting the environment for livelihoods and in the process damaging the very environment that provides livelihoods and a sense of security to the communities. Although Homer-Dixon's (1994) thesis on environmental scarcities focused on macro-level conflicts, it can be noted that these seemingly micro-level environmental conflicts as fueled by artisanal mining have caused some far-reaching effects on the Mazowe communities. This was also underscored by Mawere (2011) who also illuminated the immediate and long-term effects of illegal mining on the environment. This can be seen in Mazowe, where the long-term effects are reflected in the siltation and gradual drying up of major water bodies, i.e., dams and rivers and the small tributaries.

Mitigation Strategies for Preserving Environmental Security

Participants proposed several interventions to address unregulated artisanal mining. These strategies ranged from depoliticizing mining, imposing heavy fines, and imprisonment for those violating environmental and mining laws and more.

The participants believe that elite politicians are driving artisanal mining in the district and beyond. The study found that it was very difficult for the law-enforcing agents to uphold the law because of undue political pressure. In one of the interviews, a participant from a Civil Society Organization stated that;

The elephant in the room are the politicians who have the police in their pockets. The laws are there and the institutions are there but do we have the results? No. Rather, we have a situation where the institutions have become ineffective. The environment and the communities will continue to suffer because of the behaviour of the politicians.

Addressing the question of impunity is a significant strategy toward environmental security and environmental peacebuilding. It is important to have strong regulatory and operational frameworks in the fight against illegal mining, and this is only possible when political influence is significantly reduced.

There is a need to introduce more deterrent fines and imprisonment for those participating in unregulated artisanal mining. There is a need for a more consistent legal and policy framework to address this problem. These environmental issues have never received the attention that they deserve, yet they are the very issues threatening humanity in the 21st century.

The study also highlighted the need for environmental peace education, which should be both formal in schools and informal in the communities. There is a need to continuously raise awareness of the dangers of environmental degradation and how this is related to community conflicts, as well as how it affects sustainable livelihoods. Apart from formal education, the interviewees also highlighted the need for continuous environmental peace education beyond formal school days. They proposed rolling out environmental awareness education in the communities and identified community development officers, Civil Society Organisations (CSOs), and traditional leaders as key agents of transformation in this regard.

Discussion with communities in Christon Bank and Manzou communities highlighted the need to capacitate the Environmental Management Agency. Deliberations during FGDs showed that the communities appreciated EMA's efforts, but they also felt that more should be done to enhance their resources so that they can effectively execute their mandate. Interviews with traditional leaders also highlighted the same, with some feeling that the government was letting them down, as they are perennially hamstrung by resource constraints. There is need to give them the needed resources to patrol all illegal mining hotspots in the area.

In the same vein, they also felt that the Zimbabwe Republic Police must be capacitated as well. Participants pointed to the fact that illegal mining is often carried out in rough terrains that are difficult to navigate. As a result, participants felt the need to properly resource them with the necessary equipment, especially motorbikes (quad bikes), as suggested by some, and the establishment of a permanently mounted police unit to patrol all illegal mining hotspots on a regular basis.

Conclusion

The study concludes that unregulated artisanal gold mining in Mazowe District is a major driver of environmental degradation and conflicts in the community, thereby undermining environmental peacebuilding. The connection between peace and development is weakened when small-scale miners pursue narrow self-interest through unlawful gold extraction, resulting in significant environmental destruction. As a result, socio-economic conflicts emerge between the miners and local communities. The article also identifies the problem of weak institutions of governance and corruption. These challenges encountered by statutory agencies like the Zimbabwe Republic Police and the Environmental Management Agency represent the extended corruption issues that are exhibited in the Zimbabwe public sector, which undermine the support to promote environmental peacebuilding further. If left unchecked, unregulated artisanal mining in the district and beyond will exacerbate vulnerabilities among communities. Already, communities are battling water contamination as a result of the use of banned chemicals for the processing of gold ore. As climate change intensifies, communities will be left struggling for portable clean water for domestic use. Through Homer-Dixon's theoretical lenses, it can be concluded that the conflict in the district is informed by socio-economic inequalities in Zimbabwe. Homer-Dixon (1994) cautioned against neglecting the political economy of things when analyzing environmental conflicts. There is a strong need to examine the interplay between political systems and economic forces in resolving environmental disputes. The involvement of senior political officials has enabled uncontrolled mining activities in the district, and the political leaders offer security to the illegal miners, hence compromising the efforts to realize sustainable peace and development activities. This situation is also worsened by the fact that the youth, who constitute the majority of participants in illegal mining, often cannot access formal employment opportunities since the Zimbabwean economy is predominantly informal. A participatory approach to environmental peacebuilding is thus important if environmental-related conflicts are to be curtailed. The law-enforcing agencies and the communities must work closely together to address the effects of unregulated artisanal mining. A compartmentalized approach to addressing the conflicts will make it difficult to achieve the intended objectives and thus undermine the peace-development nexus.

There is also a need to invest in community monitoring and evaluation systems, like whistle-blowers and how they can be protected, the use of civic groups to document and report corruption, and incentivizing law-enforcement agencies working on environmental protection.

A major limitation of this study is that it was only confined to one district in Mashonaland Central Province of Zimbabwe and that the methodology was qualitative. A mixed methods approach could help deepen an understanding of the nexus between the political economy of developing countries and how they impact environmental peacebuilding. Predictive modelling of how the use of mercury and cyanide in artisanal gold mining and effects on water bodies is also important from an environmental peacebuilding perspective.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

David Makwerere

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

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