Abstract
A novice principal’s decision not to intervene on an ill-conceived policy prompts a parent to pursue a line of questioning administrators are not prepared for. In this case, a young man working through a high school transition while preparing for college is met with unexpected challenges in motivation. What the principal initially perceives as inconsequential becomes a Wicked Problem when the parent questions the ethics and legalities of the policy, teachers’ intent, and potential civil rights violations. Underscored are nuances in communication, decision making, motivation, and ethics. As the elements of the case unfold, matters pertaining to school and community relations, policy, law, race, and gender present themselves useful for discussing a variety of key issues related to school leadership.
Keywords
Management is the equivalent of déjà vu (seen this before), whereas leadership is the equivalent of vu dàjé (never seen this before).
Case Narrative
Jeff James, a principal who came from within the teaching ranks of Woodstone River 1 High School (WRHS), enjoyed the respect of both teachers and parents. WRHS was steeped in tradition and was one of the highest performing schools in the state. Teachers, most of whom were Woodstone residents, and many WRHS graduates themselves, took pride in their students’ success and worked enthusiastically to motivate them. It was not uncommon for teachers to offer interesting and unique incentives to students. In fact, teachers often commented that their ability to press students academically was part of the reason their students excelled. A teacher, in a moment of exuberance at an assembly, offered an incentive to the entire sophomore class. This incentive created leadership dilemmas for Mr. James who took the principalship a year later. The case prompts questions of policy, decision making, race, gender, law, leadership, and organizational dynamics.
The Context
The community from which the Woodstone student body comes is a rapidly growing suburban community located 20 miles northeast of a Midwestern State metropolis. Appropriately named because of its beautiful greenery, the community plays host to golf tournaments, horse races, and many other community events throughout the year. This particular suburb has become attractive to young professionals and corporate executives with children. It is home to major chemical, health, insurance, and software companies in addition to small businesses and tech startups. Area businesses have capitalized on the community assets and have been successful in recruiting a well-educated, diverse employee base. The population has expanded 41% in the last 15 years to more than 44,000 residents. Forty-eight percent of the population is male and 52% is female. The median population age is 39, and 31% of the population is below the age of 18. Married couples with two children (median) occupy 67% of the households. Ninety-nine percent of the residents possess a high school diploma or higher, 74% hold bachelor’s degrees, and 29% hold graduate or professional degrees. The average annual income is $115,000.00 (almost triple Midwestern state’s average income). The median house value is in the $320K to $325K range.
As the corporate presence has increased, community diversity has also increased. In a comparison of the population race distribution changes (Table 1), Woodstone realized a loss in the percentage of White residents (12.1%) over the past 10 years. At the same time, it saw an increase in Asian (8.3%), Black, Hispanic, and residents of two or more races (combined 7.7%). Within the local school district, which serves more than 15,000 students, the change in racial demographics has been profound (see Table 2). Over a period of 7 years, WRHS, the oldest of Woodstone’s three high schools, has realized a 10% decrease in its White student population, and an increase in Asian (5.1%), Black, Hispanic, and students of two or more races (combined 4.9%). WRHS now has a 24% minority population. The district serves the third largest English language learner (ELL) population in Midwestern State.
Comparison of Population Race Distribution Change of Woodstone in Relation to the State.
Student Demographic Change by Race Over 7 Years.
The student population of WRHS is 52% male and 48% female. While the student demographics have changed significantly, the teaching and administrative staff demographics, have remained largely unchanged over this same time period. Although there is diversity among the larger staff (including custodians, cooks, and instructional aides), there is very little racial diversity among the teaching staff. The sophomore and junior teaching staff consisted of 40 (63%) Caucasian males and 23 (37%) Caucasian females. During those 10 years a Chinese female bilingual aide was hired and two additional English as a second language (ESL) teachers joined the staff.
Historically, WRHS has been able to boast about many indicators of academic success, including a world-class curriculum, quality instruction, high graduation rates, and a mission statement confirming its commitment to equity and excellence. Recently, however, the rapidly growing diverse student population has posed some challenges to their commitment to academic excellence and equity. For example, school leadership shifted professional development efforts and resources toward effective teaching strategies primarily for ELL students (the largest growing subgroup). Although leadership noted achievement gaps for other demographic groups, they went largely unattended. Several parents and a few teachers voiced concern about possible bias and questioned why so many resources were being used to heavily support only one segment of diverse learners.
First Year: The Sophomore Test Motivation
As in years past, the teachers of the sophomore class encouraged students to come to school well prepared to take the state proficiency exam. The teachers of the sophomore class held an informational night for parents, emphasizing the importance of test readiness. The Science teacher, Mr. Reed, told the parents, “It isn’t only important for your children to perform well for their own record, but it is important they perform well for the school. We’ve presented the material; the rest of their success is up to them.” The school nurse briefed the parents on how to ensure optimal performance by establishing sleep schedules, eliminating electronic devices an hour before bedtime, and preparing a breakfast of protein, complex carbohydrates, and fruit. At the close of the informational session, parents and teachers joined in small groups for casual conversation, hand shaking, and well wishes for a good evening.
The teachers followed up the next day with a student assembly for the sophomore class. The then principal informed the sophomore class that they were well prepared and no one in the entire sophomore class had demonstrated a need for concern that hadn’t been addressed by the teachers. “All that is left” he noted, “is for you to show up, well rested, and prepared to show off what you already know; just show up and show off.” The teachers standing behind the principal chuckled, glanced at one another, and repeated, “Show up and show off.” Several students saw their amusement and began repeating “Show up and show off.” The repetition turned into a soft chant as more students picked up on the line. Their chant turned into a roar of enthusiasm and, before long, the entire class was rhythmically yelling, “Show up and show off!”
The principal gestured back toward the teachers as if to turn the microphone over and exited the auditorium. Mr. Reed, the Science teacher, unable to contain his enthusiasm, stepped up to the microphone and waved his hands in rhythm with the chant. He lowered his arms, drawing the auditorium to silence, and then said, “We are so confident in you, that if you get a score of ‘Advanced’ in four of the five core subject categories, you can opt out of taking a final exam of your choice.” The students roared in celebration, while the remaining teachers glanced at one another in disbelief. A few of the teachers’ mouths fell open in surprise and one teacher noticeably shook his head, looked at the floor, and nervously shifted from one foot to the other and back again.
Year Two: There’s a New Kid in Town
The year after the incentive was offered to the entire WRHS sophomore class, Gabriel (Gabe) George, a 15-year-old African American student, transferred into the WRHS junior class. Though not a fan of homework, he really enjoyed learning and engaging with classmates and teachers in school. He was used to working his way into casual friendships and was grateful for his athleticism, which always helped garner respect and acceptance among his peers, even in just a quick game of pick up ball or 9 holes of golf. This was his third transfer since his second-grade school year. This one though, came with a much deeper sense of loneliness. His peers in this community seemed to know one another so well and for so long. He found himself, one night, in his room thinking and asking questions about all sorts of things: Why did his parents’ careers require he transfer schools now? Why did his only brother go so far away to college? Why were things getting so hard at school? Why did he have to spend so much time preparing for the ACT again?
Working to fit in had become decidedly more difficult. In his previous move, Gabe realized that he was judged in some situations by the color of his skin and had to work exceedingly hard to gain the respect of some of his teachers. He felt the heaviness of needing to prove himself, yet again. It was all becoming less interesting. In fact, school was becoming less interesting, and he was tired of being the one with the least amount of group history. He was excited about going to college where everyone would be new together and he wouldn’t have to work his way into established groups. And yet, he found himself increasingly worried about his future. This year, for the first time, he worried about whether or not he would even make it to college.
By October, Gabe considered his Chemistry teacher, Mr. Reed, to be the most frustrating teacher he’d experienced. Mr. Reed’s favoritism was so obvious in class that other students commented on it. One day, Gabe shared with his mother that he, another child of color (not African American), and a few of the girls in class were not among Mr. Reed’s favored students.
Gabe told his mother, “This time, I’m not going to kiss up . . . Forget Mr. Reed; his issues aren’t mine. Even when I work with the lab group and we get it right, or when I study, he treats everything I offer suspiciously, like he doesn’t know if I really did it or if I’m really capable, and some of it I know is good. I hate being disrespected by him all of the time.” While walking out of the front door, Gabe said, “Forget Chemistry and forget Reed.”
Walking didn’t seem to clear his head. Not only had he made the best friends of his life in his last school, he had planned to ask his favorite friend to the junior prom. Now, they wouldn’t even be in the same city, let alone the same school. He felt conflicted and then felt badly that he took it out on his mother. When he went back home, he apologized for his anger, telling his parents that this move, although good for them, “really sucked” for him.
Mrs. George found him in his room more often, where he laid on his bed with the ACT prep book next to him. She planned to attend parent teacher conferences. She asked the Chemistry tutor they hired from the local University to join her to see what they could learn to better support Gabe in Chemistry. At the conference, Mr. Reed seemed distracted and rushed, facing a full conference schedule. He suggested Gabe’s trouble wasn’t with lab or homework, but with the tests. Mrs. George requested the opportunity for another conversation when he was less rushed, but Mr. Reed suggested he just meet with the tutor to explain Gabe’s gaps in understanding.
A Mother’s Concern
Gabe, preoccupied in thought, entered the kitchen where Mrs. George was preparing dinner. When he didn’t respond after his mother greeted him, Mrs. George asked him if everything was alright. He then stated, “Mom, in addition to getting ready for exams, the ACT is this weekend. I’m so tired all of the time.” Sensing her son’s distress, Mrs. George put her hand on her son’s back and asked, “Is there anything I can do to help?” Gabe put his head down and shook it, sniffling. Mrs. George was worried. She noted the change in Gabe. Her son, whose character was generally light and easy, was clearly growing dark and heavier in spirit. Although he spoke well of his classmates, he was less enthusiastic about school. What he once enjoyed—learning new and interesting things—had been lost to hours of studying and repetition. The stress was showing, too, in his grades, none more evidently than Chemistry.
Mrs. George and the tutor conferenced with Mr. Reed on two more occasions. On the second visit, Mrs. George suggested that maybe Gabe didn’t understand the test format. She asked Mr. Reed to share her son’s exam so they could consider whether they could assist in test-taking strategies. Mr. Reed told her this was the second year of a unique program. Hence, exam information simply wasn’t available broadly and he wasn’t permitted to share anything about the test. On Mrs. George’s final visit, she asked Mr. Reed, if he didn’t feel comfortable sharing Gabe’s test with her, would he share it with the tutor. He said he would talk with the tutor, but wasn’t able to share anything about the exam. Frustrated, Mrs. George left more confused than when she came. She had never encountered a teacher who wouldn’t offer an avenue of support for a student and Mr. Reed seemed intent on prohibiting them access to information to support Gabe. Her frustration, coupled with Gabe’s sense of disrespect, prompted her to call Mr. James. Mr. James informed her that Mr. Reed was a chemist and had received additional training to teach this special curriculum Chemistry course. He assured Mrs. George that Gabe would be fine and would ultimately do well in Mr. Reed’s course.
A Question of Fairness
Gabe came into the house in an uproar. Mrs. George asked, “What on earth is the matter with you?”
“The teachers told the class that anyone who took the state test last year and scored Advanced in four categories, didn’t have to take a final of their choice this year,” Gabe told her.
“OK, so what are you worried about? You scored Advanced in all five categories.”
“Yeah, that’s it, me and Ana weren’t here last year.”
“Well that doesn’t matter, you still met the criteria.”
“That’s it, Ana and I were told we don’t qualify. They said it doesn’t apply to us because it was a promise and incentive for last year’s sophomore class.”
“That doesn’t make sense. Don’t worry about it. I’m sure this is a misunderstanding,” Mrs. George told Gabe. The next morning, Mrs. George called Mr. James to discuss what Gabe had shared.
Mr. James said, “Well, yes, that is true. The sophomore teachers did make this promise to the class last year, but we got our scores back so late in the year that the sophomore teachers couldn’t keep their promise to that class, so they appealed to junior class teachers to release students from a final of their choice this year instead.”
“I think that’s fine,” said Mrs. George, “but Gabe is under the impression that this grace doesn’t apply to him and one other student. Is that true?”
“Well yes, that is what the teachers decided.”
“Oh really? This doesn’t make any sense to me.”
“What doesn’t make sense?”
“Our son transferred over the summer. He scored high and surpassed the requirements for participation in this opportunity, and yet you’re opting to separate him from his peers? If his previous school made the same promise to his class, he wouldn’t benefit from it because he’s here! Furthermore, why would you want to exclude a child from the activities and criteria set forth for the entire class?”
“That’s the thing, he wasn’t part of the class last year,” Mr. James responded.
Mrs. George felt herself becoming frustrated,
You’re right. He wasn’t here, but he is still part of the same graduating class and his exam scores merit the opportunity. The criteria set forth weren’t about where he was; they were an incentive to hit the high mark on the state exam. He did that!
Mrs. George, I’m not able to help you understand, except to say, this was a promise made to WRHS students last year and the teachers this year are trying to keep their promise to those students. Your son isn’t the only one exempt from this promise. Quite a few students were advanced in only three categories. Please know, the teachers set forth this policy and because it was set last year, I wasn’t involved, and as far as I can tell, your son isn’t losing anything, he just isn’t getting the benefit.
“Excuse me, Mr. James, my son isn’t getting the benefit he deserves and because of that, he is losing something.”
“What is he losing?”
“He is being excluded from participating with his peers in a privilege he earned. He met the criteria established and yet is losing the opportunity to protect his GPA like his similarly situated peers. My son is African American and in Brown v. Board of Education (1965, p.495), Chief Justice Warren said, ‘to separate them from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to ever be undone.’ Mr. James, I’m not interested in raising a heartbroken boy or an angry young man, haven’t we enough of them?
“Mrs. George, I didn’t know your son was Black. I am not separating him on the basis of his race. In your mind, this is a racial issue. In my mind, that was not the intent of the exclusion.”
Mrs. George responded, “Even as an unintended consequence, this policy has a discriminatory effect. Mr. James, Gabe is the only African American boy in this program. How could you not know he is Black? I suspect because he is the only African American may have something to do with why he’s had so much trouble in Chemistry. Maybe Mr. Reed doesn’t think Gabe should be in his class. I can assure you, Gabe belongs in every one of his courses, and in this elite curriculum.”
Mr. James replied, “As I told you, I don’t see how I cannot support my teachers on this. Their intent was to motivate the class to perform well. This isn’t a race matter.”
Mrs. George continued, “Gabe took a risk in coming here and he has tried to remain optimistic despite the difficulties he’s had, especially with Mr. Reed. This, however, is an unfair policy, and where I must intervene. If you can’t help me, as you’ve suggested, please give me the number to the superintendent. Even as you told me Gabe would be fine remaining in Mr. Reed’s class, from Gabe’s sense of unfair treatment in the class, the looks of his grades on his Science tests, and the unwillingness of his teacher to offer us help, I really can’t tell that that he will be fine or that this isn’t a race issue. The same teacher, who was unable to motivate Gabe, or effectively teach him, as I understand, was instrumental in making this questionable policy that you are fully supporting. If the exclusion is for Gabe and one other student, a girl . . . do you not see the inequity presented? I’ll ask the obvious question; why would you want to exclude them from a privilege they earned?”
“Mrs. George, this decision was made by the teachers last year. Your son wasn’t included because he joined the student body this year.”
“Thank you Mr. James, with whom shall I speak next?”
“Well that would be the superintendent, but I can assure you, he will be in support of our decision because it is a school policy, not a district policy.”
“Thank you. You should know that I don’t spend time talking to other parents about how you run your school, so you must know I was surprised to hear one of the teachers encouraged Ana to have Gabriel tell me of this. I think she did so because she knew I would speak on it. Well, she was right, I am speaking up, and Ana will benefit.”
“Wait, wait, Mrs. George, this isn’t a racial or gender matter.”
Mrs. George responded, “Maybe not intended to be, but my son is being unreasonably separated from his similarly situated peers. For me, that sounds off an alarm. This, coupled with the trouble we’ve had with the same dismissiveness of his Chemistry teacher, is troubling to say the least. Please give me the name and number of the superintendent. I’m going all the way up the chain on this. While you are looking for that number, please also find the date for the next open board meeting.”
Mr. James paced while trying to take in all of what just happened. He decided to do nothing for a day. He assumed Mrs. George would call Superintendent Petrie on Monday morning. On Sunday afternoon, he called Allen Petrie. Superintendent Petrie had been in the district for 7 years. He was well regarded both as a district leader and in leadership organizations throughout the state. He promoted Jeff James not only because of his noted favor among community and staff, but also because he was a conscientious, hard worker, dedicated to the traditions of WRHS. Petrie served as both James’ mentor and his boss. He was watching the football game when he received James’ call.
James began, “Allen, I was blindsided on Friday by a parent who is upset because the teachers made a policy decision last year to offer an incentive, which her son has been excluded from. I wasn’t even here last year, so I’m not sure how to address this situation.” After recounting the specifics of his encounter with Mrs. George, he concluded, “I think I need to support the teachers. They all seem to favor the policy and I don’t want to go against the teachers in my first year, if at all possible, like you told me. Still, I don’t know how to slow this down. The parent spoke in legalese.”
The Superintendent’s Response
“Jeff, I am not going to tell you how to run your school except to say that I do not want parents making accusations about the fairness of our policies, questioning competing policies, or engaging in legal action. What I will tell Mrs. George tomorrow, when I accept her call, is that you have the responsibility for making school decisions.” The superintendent concluded, “Jeff, get your teacher leaders together and come up with a reasonable solution for this problem so it goes no further. Monday evening, I look forward to hearing how this was resolved and how everything is moving along.”
Teaching Notes
Through this case, students of educational leadership can grapple with leadership issues presented from a variety of analytical lenses, including policy, ethics, law, school and community relations, race relations, gender equity, decision making, and organizational dynamics. In the process, students can consider the diverse perspectives and competing interests of teachers, students, parents, principals, and superintendents in relation to matters of equity and excellence. Students can interrogate the socially constructed nature of leadership and consider the complexities involved in Wicked problems (Grint, 2005, 2010).
Tame and Wicked Problems
Grint (2010) described leadership and management as the standard conceptual typology in leadership research, and noted how researchers treat the two concepts as different forms of authority rooted in the distinction between certainty and uncertainty. He noted that this distinction overlooks context, and proposed, as a remedy, contextualizing leadership and management problems by using Rittel and Webber’s (1973) typology of Tame and Wicked Problems (Grint, 2005) as described in research. According to Grint (2010), “A Tame problem may be complicated but is resolved through unilinear acts and it is likely to have occurred before” (p. 169), and is thus associated closely with management. On the other hand, “A Wicked problem is more complex, rather than just complicated” (Grint, 2010, p. 169), requiring longer time commitments, more strategic planning, and careful decision making, and is thus associated closely with leadership. Grint (2005) includes a third type of problems in his typology, a Critical problem, where there is “virtually no uncertainty about what needs to be done” (p. 1473). The role of leadership facing a Critical problem is to “take decisive action—that is to provide the answer to the problem, not to engage processes (management) or ask questions (leadership)” (p. 1472-1473). Grint’s typology provides a useful framework for leaders (and students of leadership) to recognize the socially constructed nature of leadership challenges.
Rittel and Webber (1973) proposed that the difference between a Tame and Wicked problem relied on the information (ideas) needed to understand and solve the problem, and noted “problem understanding and problem resolution are concomitant to each other” (p. 161). Tame problems are definable and may have solutions that are findable, whereas Wicked problems are not well defined, and rely upon judgment for resolution (Rittel & Webber, 1973). Moreover, Wicked problems cannot be removed from their environment, solved, and returned without affecting the environment (Grint, 2010). These distinctions highlight that the natural sciences address Tame problems, whereas the problems social scientists and policy planners address are inherently Wicked in nature because they are essentially unique (context specific) with an innumerable set of potential solutions. Choosing any one of the potential solutions could add to the problem complexity, particularly if the problem identified is only a symptom of an altogether different problem.
Wicked problems are difficult to solve because they involve incomplete, contradictory, or changing information. Their wickedness lies in resistance to resolution, rather than sinister intent. Solving one aspect of a Wicked problem could result in creating other problems. Because of the high degree of uncertainty surrounding Wicked problems, they provide opportunities for leaders to ask good questions, rather than simply provide expedient answers, because resolution may “require a collaborative process to make any kind of progress” (Grint, 2005, p. 1473). As public leaders, school administrators must be keenly attuned to their social context and how it is changing (Bryson & Crosby, 2005).
Asking the right questions in the face of a Wicked problem is critical for leadership to find satisfactory resolution. When resolving problems that entangle others, Maxwell (2014) suggested that three key questions for leadership should be the following:
Why are we facing this problem?
How do we go about solving it?
What specific steps need to be taken?
Analyzing the sequence of events that escalate a problem can lead to better overall communication, policy formation, understanding of voice and responsibility, and future practice.
The case presented frames a Wicked problem because of the multiple perspectives involved, which add to the problem complexity. Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) determined, “ . . . race continues to be a significant factor in determining inequity in the United States.” In addition to the changing demographics of the student population, the demographics of the teaching staff didn’t change over time, nor did the resource allocations go toward addressing teacher development for the wide spectrum of diversity that had come to Woodstone.
Prior to Mr. James, the previous principal indicated the teachers had presented the material and expressed that no one had demonstrated a need for concern that hadn’t been addressed by the teachers. Presenting material doesn’t equate to teaching and it certainly doesn’t mean that learning has occurred. Mr. Reed was aware Gabe’s grades were slipping, and Gabe’s mother had expressed concern to both he and the principal, stating, “Even as you told me Gabe would be fine remaining in Mr. Reed’s class . . . I really can’t tell that he will be fine or that this isn’t a race issue.” Gabe’s sense of being socially disadvantaged in Mr. Reed’s class and his ability to identify Reed’s biases coupled with the dismissiveness the parent experienced was over time interpreted by the parent to be culturally insensitive, disparaging, and thus, further marginalizing.
The policy Mr. Reed proposed, moreover, was on its face an inequitable policy. It presumed that the entire class had an equal educational opportunity up to that point, when in fact Mrs. George pointed out that her son was the only African American in the high track curriculum. One of the main culprits of student lack of higher education preparedness is the inability to access the right curriculum. The rewards of participating in high track courses are many (Beard, 2016). Among them, to score “Advanced” in four out of five disciplines requires high-level curriculum access in four out five disciplines. When the taught curriculum is the tested curriculum, students are able to successfully pass tests. Scoring “Advanced” requires exposure to curriculum and test-taking strategies lower tracked students are often not exposed to, where African American students are disproportionately placed. Ogbu (2003) argued that African American parents are often not well informed about advanced placement classes and students are assigned to less academically rigorous tracks with less academic rewards. “Tracking is at the heart of the achievement gap conversation” (Beard, 2016, p. 367). Tracking, along with poor teacher quality, administrator inability to create conditions conducive for learning, and the inattentiveness to the psychology of educating marginalized students, is how covert and systemic racism, and sexism in education persists.
In the United States, achievement gaps are most boldly bright-lined along socioeconomic, gender, and racial divides. One of the main culprits of student lack of higher education preparedness is access to the “right” preparatory curriculum. Tracking and curriculum access are at the heart of the conversation pertaining to gaps in achievement. Burris and Welner (2005) determined, Achievement follows from opportunities, and persistent practice of tracking denies a range of opportunities to large numbers of students. That a disproportionate number of these students are minorities is one of the underlying reasons that the achievement gap has remained so persistent. (p. 594)
In spite of the research demonstrating the ineffectiveness of low-track class and of tracking as a practice, educators still continue to track. Oakes (1985) believed the reason that the practice continues is rooted in the tradition of school culture. These traditions over time have come to dictate the ways in which schools are organized and schooling is conducted. “In short, the practice of tracking has become traditional” (p. 15). The first tenet of critical race theory (CRT) is that racism exists as normal to the way we live in society (Taylor, Gillborn, and Billings, 2016). Ladson-Billings extended the CRT frame to include educational theory and practices. Fowler (2013) noted, “Sometimes the nature of the policy being followed becomes apparent only after an analysis of consistent patterns of government action and inaction” (p. 8).
That the parent brought concern to Mr. James and he neglected to pursue a line of questioning with Mr. Reed, Gabe, Ana, Ana’s parent, or the other teachers (some of whom demonstrated concern about the policy formulation) showed poor judgment. Effective leaders investigate motives, procedures, practices, and understandings by asking good questions rather than accepting the status quo. Mrs. George was initially willing to trust Principal James’ assurance that Gabe would be fine to remain in Reed’s class, without follow up; over time, she came to question his assurance and judgment stating: Even as you told me Gabe would be fine remaining in Mr. Reed’s class, from Gabe’s sense of unfair treatment in the class, the looks of his grades on his Science tests, and the unwillingness of his teacher to offer us help, I really can’t tell that that he will be fine or that this isn’t a race issue. The same teacher, who was unable to motivate Gabe, or effectively teach him, as I understand, was instrumental in making this questionable policy that you are fully supporting. If the exclusion is for Gabe and one other student, a girl . . . do you not see the inequity presented? I’ll ask the obvious question; why would you want to exclude them from a privilege they earned?”
Wicked problems are complex, with no unilinear solution and without a stopping point. There are not clear right or wrong solutions, but rather, better or worse alternatives. The discussion topics and following questions offer guidance in exploring the various facets of Wicked problems in light of this case. Framing this case as a Wicked problem allows students to consider better steps leadership could’ve taken in this case or similar situations that occur in the day of a school principal.
Context-Specific Wicked Problems in Educational Leadership
Communication is difficult to isolate from other administrative functions such as decision making, motivation, and leadership. While not all problems involve unsuccessful communication, problems of poor interactions may reflect breakdowns in other fundamental components of the organization. Educational leaders must be acutely informed in historical and social context when communicating. In a multicultural society, demographic attributes such as race, occupation, and gender provide surrogate indicators for the common experiences and background attributes that shape language and communication abilities (Zenger & Lawrence, 1989). Omi and Winant (1994) determined, “Race is a matter of both social structure and cultural representation” (p. 56). Ladson-Billings and Tate (1995) synthesized, Issues of gender bias also figure in inequitable schooling with females receiving less attention from teachers, counseled away from or out of advanced mathematics and science courses, and although they receive better grades than their male counterparts, their grades do not translate into advantage in college admission and/or the work place. But examination of class and gender, taken alone or together, do not account for the extraordinarily high rates of school dropout, suspension, expulsion, and failure among African-American and Latino males. (p. 51)
Gabe was increasingly becoming aware that his contribution and status in Reed’s class was less important than that of others. Reed’s favoritism was obvious enough for other students to acknowledge it. The inverse of favoritism in this context was the bias that was beginning to threaten Gabe’s motivation. Gabe also realized he wasn’t alone in Reed’s relegation to unimportance when he noted that he, another child of color (not African American), and a few of the girls in class were not among Mr. Reed’s favored students. Parents of marginalized groups are keenly aware of the impact their status in society has on their experiences and opportunities. Many times seeking protection under the law is the only protection they perceive to be of benefit. Hoy and Miskel (2013) understood that communication “among people depends on a combination of contextual, cultural, or environmental factors” (p. 407).
It is important to note that marginalization is not confined to race and gender. While it could be argued, and evidenced, that race and gender marginalization in education have delivered the most damaging impact on opportunity over time, marginalization is a fluid concept. It is applicable to many groups who are “othered” in situational context (e.g., gender and sexual minorities and differently abled students). It is also important to note that children of military families experience the same psychological challenges in adapting to new school contexts as children in urban or rural settings, as well as the homeless when frequent relocation requires frequent social adjustment in academic settings.
Demographic trends
Fowler (2013) suggests that it is critical for school leaders to understand the implications of long-term demographic trends, including areas of growth or decline, as well as aging, and diversification. To positively impact achievement, school leaders must be able to adapt to the dynamics of shifting demographics and work intently to provide support for students and families. Applying Fowler’s (2013) cultural framework description, traditionalistic political cultures may struggle with the competing values of maintaining the status quo and expanding equity. Educational leaders must monitor if, how, and to what extent cultural values interfere with their commitment to provide an appropriate, if not excellent, education for all students. It is increasingly important that school leaders be aware of the global and local demographic shifts as well as the implications the economy has on education and educational policies formed in response to those shifts.
Decision making
Hoy and Miskel (2013) defined leadership as “a social process in which an individual or a group influences behavior toward a shared goal; leadership is distributed widely in organizations both formally and informally and has rational, social, and emotional bases” (p. 427). They further explained the general pattern of satisficing decision making includes recognizing and identifying the problem and relevant issues involved, analyzing the difficulties in the situation through questioning, establishing criteria for solutions that are satisfactory, involving others in the decision, developing a strategy, initiating a plan of action, and evaluating the outcomes.
Hoy and Miskel (2013) concluded their guidelines for successfully preparing teachers for shared decision making by saying, “teachers must have useful knowledge, be motivated to participate, and willing to subordinate their personal agendas for the good of the school” (p. 381). They reminded us that values are an integral part of deciding; decisions are not value free . . . when administrators pursue actions that they believe will attain a valued outcome they are making judgments of values between competing goods or the lesser of evils. (Hoy & Miskel, 2013, p. 332)
Even in shared decision making, though, comes the realization that responsibility and accountability are not equally shared.
Educational policy
Education, race, and gender have had a troubled and troubling relationship in U.S. history (Beard, 2016). Fowler (2013) explained, in school district cases following the Brown decision, school officials were unaware of the possibility that their actions were violating the Brown ruling. Rather, “school officials had adopted a pattern of inaction that was tacitly supported by the inaction of their state governments. In those states—and many others—racial segregation continued to be the policy long after it had ceased to lawful” (Fowler, 2013, p. 9, emphasis added). If an expressed policy is not congruent with action behaviors carrying out the intent of policy, then those actions (or inactions), rather than the policy statement, are the policy in effect. Thus, if the actions or inactions are not in support of the policy, the policy itself as well as the implimentation is subject to challenge. Policy implementation is in the hands of school leaders and teachers, and policies are always altered during implementation (Hamann & Lane, 2004). While policies are generally developed at the top of a political system, Maxwell (2014) determined most decisions are best addressed as close to the problem as possible.
Ethics
In her appeal to the administration, Mrs. George asked, “why would you want to exclude two students?” While she saw this as unreasonable and discriminatory, the question seeks rationale and reason. Strike, Haller, and Soltis (2010) noted that administrators are decision makers and thus can be questioned about decision fairness and democracy. They are leaders, organizers, and facilitate the work of teachers. They are expected to hire and evaluate teachers fairly and humanely, and allocate resources justly and equitably. They deal with students, parents, and school boards. They must work within two principles: benefit maximization and equal respect of persons. As Strike et al. (2010) observed, “ethics seems to be part of the job” (p. 15).
School and community relations
Losing an opportunity to engage families in the success of their child is a missed opportunity in building strong relationships that enhance the well-being of students as well as families. Lopez and Caspe (2014) determined family engagement plays a big role in where high school graduates go to college and whether or not they graduate from postsecondary institutions. When we consider that 47% of White adults held at least a 2-year college degree in 2015, in contrast to only 33% of African American adults and 23% of Latino adults, family engagement becomes a matter of equity. Through school and community partnerships, families can make sure children start kindergarten strong, stay on a path to college, graduate from high school, and complete college. Having access to a postsecondary degree is beneficial for both positive life outcomes for individuals and for our society as a whole, and is in the best interest of the nation’s cultural and economic health (Beard, 2015). Thus, preparing educators to develop positive relationships with families is essential to effectively impacting positive student engagement achievement. This is especially important as many practicing educators remain unfamiliar or uncomfortable with families from different cultural backgrounds and socioeconomic circumstances, rendering them incapable of positively impacting student engagement and achievement for all of their students.
Weiss et al. (2014) determined, “family engagement must be understood as having cumulative effects over time. Students with supportive parents throughout childhood and adolescence are likely to graduate from high school” (p. xxiii). School leaders should educate parents in the ways they can support their children, then capitalize on parent engagement beneficial to the student’s academic success and well-being. When school leadership neglects to engage families or attend to social context, as well as the changing organizational dynamics, they may easily become blind to the effects of their decision making on the population they serve. Furthermore, they risk being blindsided by seemingly inconsequential challenges of Tame problems when the socially constructed nature of leadership presents Wicked ones. Educational administration and leadership students can explore these complexities further through the following discussion questions.
Independently or in small groups:
Discuss this case in relation to the three questions Maxwell (2014) suggests for resolving problems and a fourth question: How could this be avoided in the future?
Describe this situation in relation to Grint’s (2005, 2010) understanding of Tame and Wicked problems, management, and leadership. What factors were involved in the escalation and what should have happened to de-escalate, rather than escalate, the situation?
Describe when the problem was recognized or identified and by whom.
With respect to Oakes’ (2005) understanding of tracking as traditional and CRT tenets describing racism as normal to the way we live in society, and that race is social constructed and given the fact that the population of the United States has grown to include more students of color, now in the majority in public schools, discuss the practice of tracking continuance as tradition and normal to the way we educate an increasingly diverse population.
Mr. James’ response to Mrs. George when she told him Gabe was the only African American student in the program was that he didn’t know Gabe was African American. Relate his response to the notion of color-blindness and student population awareness in leadership.
Describe when the relevant issues and difficulties involved were analyzed through appropriate questioning. Determine when questioning should have begun, by whom, and to what possible end?
Identify what you believe were the motives and values evident in the decisions of each of the key stakeholders. Provide evidence from the case to substantiate your claim. Were these motives congruent with the espoused mission of the school/district and the commitment to equity and excellence?
Mrs. George speaks of unintended consequences and relates the exclusion of her son from the group that would obtain the promised reward to separating students from similarly situated others. How should leadership include her perspective as they move forward in policy creation and implementation?
If Gabe had been Caucasian, Asian (the largest shift in the community), Latino, or Native American, would the application of the policy have had the same psychological impact ? Why do you suppose Ana and her mother remained silent? In response, include your understanding of minority, marginalization, underserved, and protected class.
The principal, Mr. James, didn’t fully appreciate the complexity of not intervening on behalf of the student until learning of Mrs. George’s perspective, nor did he specifically recall the conversation they had earlier about her concerns with Mr. Reed. This dilemma presents a case of administrative inaction. Role-play the conversation Mr. James now must have with his teachers, Mrs. George, and Mr. Petrie.
In a common rookie mistake, Mr. James stood behind a policy because he believed he was supporting what the teachers wanted. How would you advise him moving forward?
How are the ethical concepts of morality, fairness, democracy, equity, and integrity applicable to this case? First think about their applicability to the school/district mission, and then to the decision making of the stakeholders involved.
Define the principles of benefit maximization and equal respect of persons. Make an argument for each and debate these principles based on the decision making of the teacher, principal, superintendent, and parent involved.
Given Lopez and Caspe’s (2014) understanding of equity, develop a professional development outline for a teacher’s meeting at WRHS, where you will share this understanding and inform teachers how to welcome and cultivate beneficial parent engagement for minority student success in their school experience.
Should Mr. James use this opportunity for professional development for Mr. Reed? If so, how could he influence and develop Mr. Reed’s understanding of the link between family engagement and minority student success?
Develop action steps and/or activities to better welcome students into the school culture to ensure their acceptance and success in obtaining positive opportunities within.
Develop an activity for WRHS teacher and parent collaboration. Include suggested ways in which teachers and parents (of underserved populations) can support college readiness.
The challenges administrators face daily call for a variety of leadership theories and decision-making styles. In fact, decision making is considered the sine qua non of educational administration (Hoy & Miskel, 2013). Before any decisions can be made however, the problem must be well identified and defined. Grint’s (2005) social construction of leadership offered a problem typology that can help leaders identify the kind of problem they are facing and the style of leadership needed: Tame (managerial-oriented), Wicked (leadership-oriented), and Crisis (commander-oriented). Each of the elements described in the context of this case could contribute to the creation of Wicked problems for educational leaders when important concepts of educational leadership are applied, for example, ethics, policy, law, school, and community relations. When leaders neglect to attend to careful questioning, in their decision-making process, policy formulation, and implementation, the consequences can lead to communication misunderstandings and interpretations from a variety of perspectives and can make a seemingly Tame problem, Wicked.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.