Abstract
In his book, Islam and Citizenship in Indonesia, Robert W. Hefner, a professor of anthropology and director of the Institute on Culture, Religion, and World Affairs at Boston University, discusses the political struggle in Indonesia related to Islam and citizenship. The book aims to correct an assumption still widespread in Western policy circles that Muslim culture and politics are uniform around the world. Hefner argues that in terms of its democratic journey, Indonesia is different from other Muslim countries. Drawing from the latest research in the disciplines of political science and sociology on Muslim politics and diversity, the book observes that ideological and normative differences of opinion are possible in a Muslim country without assuming there are only two sides—a secular liberal side and a conservative-religious one—to any dispute. In support of this argument, Hefner discusses how issues such as sharī‘a, gender, and education are addressed in Indonesia now.
The author starts in Chapter 2 with a discussion of the Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (known as Ahok), a Christian Chinese governor. According to Indonesian law, Ahok is a legal citizen. Nevertheless, in a democratic country with a Muslim majority, his citizenship status is questioned.
In Chapter 3, Hefner outlines the confession of every state religion recognized in Indonesia with all of their complex processes. There are six of them. Even though narratives about a proper, civilized, and modern national culture continue to be voiced, indigenous religious practices are among the six. Still, indigenous religious positions, as well as minority beliefs, are marginalized and Indonesia exercises its power as a state to enforce conformity to the majority professions of Islam.
In Chapter 4, the author explains how the development of Indonesia has been influenced by conservative Islamic groups and reformists, especially the “Aksi Bela Islam” (Action to Defend Islam), from the end of the Soeharto era. Different Salafism movements with various orientations have influenced attitudes and modified concepts of tolerance regarding citizenship rights and religious freedom. The Front Pembela Islam (FPI or Islam’s Defender Front) is highlighted in this section. The FPI is considered to have successfully hijacked the Majeslis Ulama Indonesia (MUI or Council of Indonesian Ulama) and the author argues that Rizieq (FPI’s leader) has made himself into one of the biggest threats to democracy and citizen inclusiveness that have occurred in post-Suharto Indonesia.
In Chapter 5, the author discusses the role of Islamic schools in cultivating exclusivism and the implication of the schools in building Muslim public ethics. Islamic education in Indonesia began traditionally and was influenced by the Islamization process. When colonialism came, the Islamic education system changed and competition between various Muslim groups occurred. After independence, Islamic education continued to develop as each ideology promoted its system.
In Chapter 6, the author explores the role of women in a very strong patriarchal culture. The success of the anti-polygamy campaign by women activists was supported by a large number of women being educated and going to university. Muslim women’s organizations continue to grow despite the fact that secular sentiment is being undermined. In these circumstances, Hefner argues that Muslim feminists would be better off aiming directly at their unreformed cultural heritage. He suggests they can bring insights from their own experience as well as from the social and natural sciences to reinterpret God’s commands in a holistic, contextual, and equality-affirming manner.
In Chapter 7, the author discusses the position of sharī‘a. As a democratic country that protects different religions, ethnicities, and races, implementing sharī‘a raises fundamental ethical issues. Its supporters have not and will not simply surrender, however. The book’s final discussion is closely related to its initial discussion of Ahok, the former governor of Jakarta.
Islam and Citizenship in Indonesia suggests the diverse history of Muslim communities in Indonesia is a strong asset for democracy in this country. However, Indonesia’s democratic journey is still very much in its infancy and the state is still in the process of building a political, legal, and public ethical framework. As religious authority is closely related to public ethics, it would be appropriate to have a separate chapter that discusses it specifically. Still, overall, the book considers seriously and in detail the development of public ethics and citizenship in a country that adheres to a democratic system with a Muslim majority. The book is rich in data, but its strength lies in the use of a variety of disciplines, including history, sociology, and anthropology to enrich the analysis. Scholars researching Indonesia will find the book interesting but anyone interested in inclusive public ethics in the Islamic world will also find it engaging and thought-provoking. The history of Muslim Indonesia offers lessons and hope for people everywhere who seek to live together in equality and civic decency.