Classroom management and theater-based practices: A qualitative research based on special education teachers’ experiences

Introduction

Classroom management is a fundamental component that ensures teaching and learning activities proceed effectively and without interruption, as intended. It not only supports teachers’ instructional efforts but also directly influences students’ active engagement in the learning process. Therefore, the scope of classroom management extends far beyond the maintenance of discipline. It encompasses a range of interconnected dimensions, including the regulation of classroom interactions, the organization of the learning environment, time management, and the control of student behaviors. In this regard, classroom management constitutes a holistic process involving the arrangement of the physical environment, the effective implementation of instructional programs, the efficient use of time, the regulation of student–teacher relationships, and the application of strategies to guide student behavior. Among these elements, managing disruptive behaviors that threaten the order of the learning environment and interrupt instruction represents one of the most critical aspects of classroom management (Tuti et al., 2025).

Disruptive behaviors frequently observed in learning environments are defined as recurring patterns that hinder students’ academic development and complicate teacher interventions (Harlacher, 2022). Theoretically, these behaviors are conceptualized at three main levels: at the individual level, they involve withdrawal and impulsivity; in peer interactions, they manifest as verbal or physical aggression, teasing, and exclusion; and in relation to teachers, they appear as noncompliance with instructions, rule violations, and resistance to authority (Gordon, 2001; Kounin, 1970). Several factors play a significant role in the emergence of such behaviors, including students’ socio-emotional development, environmental conditions, and instructional methods (Scott et al., 2011; Torres, 2017).

In special education classrooms that include students with intellectual disabilities, such behaviors occur more frequently, in more diverse forms, and across multiple dimensions. This situation makes classroom management significantly more complex. These behaviors often reflect both internalizing features, such as anxiety and social withdrawal, and externalizing characteristics, such as temper outbursts and aggression. They are not limited to cases requiring individual intervention; rather, they directly influence social relationships in the classroom and the interaction between teachers and students (Oliver and Reschly, 2017; Reinke et al., 2020). In this context, the complex structure shaped by individual behavior patterns, peer relations, and student attitudes toward teachers affects all components of classroom management. Therefore, teachers must develop approaches that include not only pedagogical skills but also emotional awareness and sensitivity to interpersonal dynamics. In this regard, effective classroom management in special education settings serves not only to maintain academic continuity but also plays a critical role in promoting social cohesion, sustaining interactional balance, and preserving the integrity of the instructional environment (Chao et al., 2017; Farmer et al., 2017; Scott, 2017).

However, the literature indicates that teachers often struggle to cope with behaviors such as impulsivity, temper tantrums, and rule violations. These challenges can elevate stress levels, lead to emotional exhaustion, and undermine the quality of interpersonal relationships (Gyasi et al., 2020; Oliver and Reschly, 2017). Universal interventions have been shown to reduce such difficulties, especially when positive changes in teacher attitudes significantly influence student outcomes (Oliver and Reschly, 2017). Nevertheless, the structural and professional barriers that teachers face in transferring existing interventions into classroom settings (Kaya, 2023) have prompted them to seek more innovative and interaction-focused strategies. This growing need points to the importance of exploring alternative approaches.

Among these approaches, student-centered interventions that help learners recognize, regulate, and adapt their behaviors to appropriate social contexts have gained prominence. In particular, self-management strategies strengthen the internal control skills of individuals with intellectual disabilities, supporting autonomous behavior regulation while also reducing the teacher’s classroom management burden (Hoff and DuPaul, 1998). Within this framework, theatre-based practices have attracted attention due to their emphasis on creativity and social interaction. These practices contribute to the development of socio-emotional skills such as sustaining attention, demonstrating empathy, recognizing emotions, following rules, and acting cooperatively. In doing so, they aim to promote positive behavioral transformations in the classroom (Corbett et al., 2011; Eratay, 2012; Maas, 2019; Ünay and Erdem, 2025). Indeed, various studies involving individuals with intellectual disabilities have shown that such practices reduce behaviors including social withdrawal, aggression, and resistance to instructions (Bololia et al., 2022; Corbett et al., 2011; Ioannou et al., 2020; Mpella et al., 2019; Ünay, 2026). In conclusion, structured theatre-based practices stand out as a comprehensive intervention tool that supports both instructional processes and students’ socio-emotional development within the scope of classroom management.

This study is grounded in Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1977), which posits that individual behaviors are shaped not only by internal traits but also by environmental stimuli, cognitive processes, and observational learning. Observational learning, closely linked to self-regulation and the development of self-efficacy, enables individuals to internalize behaviors by observing others. In this context, enacting social roles in the classroom contributes to students’ development of self-confidence and internal control. Structured theatre activities operationalize this theoretical framework by allowing students with intellectual disabilities to engage with social roles, explore alternative behaviors, and enhance their self-regulation skills (Cook, 2020; Fabian et al., 2022). Indeed, theatre-based interventions have emerged as creative and transformative instructional strategies that foster the development of empathy, attention span, emotional regulation, and social interaction (Ioannou et al., 2020; Maas, 2019).

The positive effects of structured theatre-based practices on behavioral development have been clearly demonstrated, particularly in studies involving individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. These practices support students in developing social awareness, self-concept, and rule-governed interaction (Corbett et al., 2011; Frydman and Mayor, 2021; Mpella et al., 2019). In Turkey, however, theatre-based interventions are mostly implemented in the form of creative drama with small groups, and the number of systematic and structured examples remains limited (Önemli et al., 2015, Özçınar, 2018). Furthermore, many existing studies rely on short-term interventions and tend to overlook contextual factors, which limits their ability to evaluate long-term behavioral outcomes (Anderson, 1992; Lenakakis and Koltsida, 2017). This situation highlights the need for qualitative research that analyzes theatre-based structured activities implemented in special education classrooms through teacher observations and takes contextual dynamics into account.

This study aims to evaluate the impact of structured theatre practices, implemented with students with intellectual disabilities as part of a TÜBİTAK-supported project, on classroom management through teacher perspectives. Within this scope, classroom management is conceptualized not merely as a process targeting the regulation of individual behaviors, but as a multilayered structure that also encompasses key classroom variables such as the quality of peer interactions and student–teacher relationships. The study seeks to analyze the contributions of theatre-based practices to this complex structure by addressing both pedagogical and social dimensions. Based on this aim, the following research questions guided the study:

1. How do teachers describe the contributions of structured theatre-based practices to classroom management processes?

Method

Participants

The participants were special education teachers who took part in a project implementing structured theatre-based practices and directly observed the sessions with students with intellectual disabilities. Participants were selected through purposive sampling (Merriam, 2009) based on three criteria: active project participation, direct observation of student behaviors, and willingness to reflect on classroom implications. Teachers were identified in collaboration with the project coordinator and school administrators. Selection emphasized not only involvement in the project but also the capacity to evaluate behavioral impacts from a pedagogical perspective. Sampling concluded upon reaching data saturation. After each interview, audio recordings and transcripts were reviewed, and new codes and themes were tracked to ensure systematic data collection (Braun and Clarke, 2021).

The final sample included ten high school-level special education teachers from a vocational education center where the project was implemented. Participants varied in gender, educational background, and professional experience (see Table 1). This diversity enriched the data both demographically and contextually. All participants conducted in-class observations during implementation, contributing to the credibility of the findings and offering multiple perspectives on the practices (Fusch and Ness, 2015).

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Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of participants (N=10).

Participant	Age	Gender	Seniority (Years)	Degree status	School type	Teaching subject
T1	45	F	21	Master’s degree	Special education vocational school	Special education
T2	42	F	18	Master’s degree	Special education vocational school	Food technology
T3	40	F	16	Bachelor’s degree	Special education vocational school	Fashion design
T4	44	M	20	Master’s degree	Special education vocational school	Chemistry technology
T5	39	M	14	Master’s degree	Special education vocational school	Handicraft technology
T6	37	F	12	Bachelor’s degree	Special education vocational school	Special education
T7	36	F	10	Master’s degree	Special education vocational school	Arts
T8	35	M	9	Bachelor’s degree	Special education vocational school	Chemistry technology
T9	33	F	7	Master’s degree	Special education vocational school	English language
T10	32	M	6	Bachelor’s degree	Special education vocational school	Special education

T: Teacher; M: male; F: female.

Ethical considerations

Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Trabzon University (Approval No: 2400037154, Date: 27 July 2024). All participants were informed about the purpose of the study, and informed consent was obtained prior to participation. Confidentiality and anonymity of the participants were maintained throughout the research process.

Theatre-based intervention process

The theatre-based intervention was designed as a structured and interactive learning process grounded in experiential learning principles, aiming to support students’ social competencies, including relationship initiation and maintenance, emotional expression, cooperation, and conflict management. The intervention was implemented over a ten-week period, including nine weeks of structured sessions and a final performance week. The intervention lasted nine weeks and consisted of ten sessions, each lasting approximately 60–75 minutes. Each session followed a consistent three-phase structure to ensure procedural continuity. The first phase involved theatre-based warm-up activities (10–15 minutes), including name games, mirroring exercises, and rhythm-based group tasks. These activities were used to facilitate engagement, increase body awareness, and promote group cohesion.

The second phase (40–45 minutes) constituted the core theatre work and was structured around the staged development of the play Delikburunlular Kabilesi (The Tribe of Hole-Nosed People) (Engindeniz, 2018). The intervention followed a script-based approach centred on rehearsal and performance preparation rather than improvisational or forum-based practices. During this phase, students engaged in role assignment, line reading and memorisation, character enactment, coordinated stage movement (blocking), and scene performance. The play consisted of six separate scenes involving different student groups, allowing all participants to be actively involved in the process.

Through repeated rehearsal cycles, students participated in structured interactions within clearly defined roles and narrative contexts. These activities required students to coordinate with peers, respond to cues, maintain attention, and participate in collective scene construction. No formal theatre game-based or forum-based techniques were employed; instead, the intervention relied on structured role enactment and guided interaction within a predefined script.

The final phase (10–15 minutes) involved reflection and group sharing. Students were invited to express their experiences and reflect on their participation through guided prompts (e.g., “How did you feel in that role?”). These discussions were used to support expression and participation within a structured format.

Attendance was monitored throughout the intervention, and a maximum of two absences was set as the inclusion criterion for analysis. In cases of absence, roles were temporarily reassigned to ensure continuity of the scenes, which also required students to adapt to changing group dynamics.

The sessions were conducted by the researcher in collaboration with a professional theatre actor affiliated with the Turkish State Theatre, who had over 25 years of experience. While the actor facilitated the theatre-related activities, the researcher monitored the process to ensure alignment with the educational aims of the study. Teachers participating in the research acted primarily as observers during the sessions. They did not take part as performers but closely followed student behaviours, interactions, and engagement throughout the intervention.

The intervention concluded with a public performance presented to an audience of approximately 500 preschool and primary school students. This performance represented the final stage of the rehearsal process and provided a context in which students enacted the scenes they had practiced. It is acknowledged that the performance itself may have contributed to students’ motivation, social confidence, and teachers’ perceptions of competence; therefore, the observed outcomes should be interpreted as reflecting the combined influence of both the rehearsal process and the performance experience. To ensure implementation fidelity, a structured checklist was developed prior to the intervention. Two independent research assistants, who were familiar with the intervention objectives but were not involved in the implementation, observed selected sessions (2nd, 4th, 7th, and 9th) and evaluated adherence to the planned session structure and activities. The checklist included 16 items assessing the implementation of session components and opportunities for student interaction. Inter-rater reliability between observers was calculated at 94%, indicating a high level of agreement and confirming that the intervention was implemented consistently.

Findings

The findings were organized around four main themes based on the subjective experiences of the participating teachers after implementing the structured theatre-based activities. These themes included contributions to classroom management, improvements in individual behavioral development, changes in peer relationships, and impacts on student attitudes toward teachers. To capture the depth of teacher perspectives, the analysis includes direct quotations from the participants. The themes reflect shared patterns derived from the teachers’ common observations and highlight recurring experiential insights (Patton, 2002).

Discussion

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in holistic approaches that aim to structure classroom management in ways that support the learning and adaptation skills of students with intellectual disabilities (Corbett et al., 2011; Fabian et al., 2022; Ioannou et al., 2020). Within this context, the present study explored the effects of structured theatre-based practices on classroom management from the perspectives of special education teachers. Classroom management was conceptualized not merely as the regulation of individual behavior but as a multi-layered construct that included the quality of peer interactions and student–teacher relationships. The findings were interpreted through the theoretical lens of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory and were discussed in relation to the existing literature. The findings indicated that theatre-based practices provided structured social learning environments in which students developed role-based interaction skills, behavioral regulation, and peer coordination through repeated participation.

The first finding of the study revealed that theatre-based structured practices offered multidimensional contributions to classroom management. Based on teachers’ reflections, the data were categorized into four sub-themes: management of classroom behavior, student group interactions, instructional flow and time use, and structural insights into the implementation process. Teachers reported clear improvements in students’ self-regulation, rule compliance, relationship skills, engagement in lessons, and time awareness. In particular, the observed progress in behavioral regulation and adherence to classroom rules aligned with Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, which emphasizes the role of modeling, self-monitoring, and reinforcement in shaping behavior (Bandura, 1977), particularly in structured environments where repeated rehearsal and clearly defined roles provided ongoing opportunities for behavioral adjustment. Within this framework, such practices supported behavioral adjustment in structured social contexts, as students observed peer behaviors and adjusted their actions in line with group expectations. This finding was consistent with previous research highlighting how structured drama supports the development of empathy and the internalization of social norms (Gordon, 2001; Oliver and Reschly, 2017; Reinke et al., 2020).

Theatre activities positively influenced not only peer relations but also student–teacher interactions. Through role-enactment and collaborative rehearsals, students began to assume greater responsibility and perceived teacher authority as a form of collaborative guidance. This aligned with studies that underscore the relational benefits of artistic experiences in strengthening teacher–student connections (Fletcher et al., 2017; Frydman and Mayor, 2021). Gains in focus and instructional participation were explained by the cognitively and socially engaging nature of drama practices (Mpella et al., 2019, Özçınar, 2018). Students’ increased responsibility, ownership of roles, and heightened time awareness contributed directly to the organization of classroom routines. Overall, the findings indicated that theatre-based practices functioned as a supportive classroom management strategy by promoting behavioral adaptation, enhancing pedagogical relationships, and increasing participation among students with intellectual disabilities.

The second finding of the study highlighted significant improvements in individual behaviors among students with intellectual disabilities following theatre-based practices. According to participating teachers, these practices helped regulate students’ classroom behavior and contributed to smoother classroom management. The data were organized into four sub-themes: attention span and focus, self-confidence, responsibility and participatory behavior, and school attachment and sense of belonging. Teachers reported notable gains in students’ attention control and their ability to maintain focus, consistent with previous research on the effects of arts-based interventions on cognitive flexibility and attentional regulation (Cook, 2020; Lenakakis and Koltsida, 2017; Ünay, 2026). Such improvements could be linked to structured repetition and role-enactment embedded in theatre activities, where students engaged in attention-demanding tasks and rehearsed alternative behavioral responses within a controlled social context.

Increased self-confidence and reduced social withdrawal further supported the role of theatre in promoting social-emotional development. Teachers noted that participation in group performances and the assumption of visible roles enhanced students’ capacity for self-expression. Repeated exposure to peer audiences appeared to reduce social hesitation and supported more confident behavioral responses (Bololia et al., 2022; Ünay, 2026). In addition, students demonstrated a greater willingness to assume responsibility and engage in learning activities, suggesting that such practices fostered intrinsic motivation, as students were required to fulfil specific roles and contribute to the continuity of group performance. These outcomes were interpreted within the framework of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, which emphasizes the role of self-regulation and observational learning in behavior development (Bandura, 1977). Finally, students showed a stronger sense of belonging to the school environment. This emotional shift not only influenced classroom behavior but also shaped their broader attitudes toward education. Participation in shared performances and collective rehearsal processes appeared to strengthen students’ sense of inclusion and recognition within the group. Prior studies similarly noted that collective creative processes, such as theatre, enhanced feelings of social connection and perceived value (Fletcher et al., 2017; Maas, 2019). Overall, the findings indicated that theatre-based practices functioned as an effective tool for supporting both behavioral regulation and holistic development in students with intellectual disabilities.

The third finding of the study revealed that theatre-based structured practices led to a qualitative transformation in peer relationships among students with intellectual disabilities. According to participating teachers, these practices positively influenced students’ interactions with their peers and fostered meaningful improvements in social relationships. The findings were organized into four main themes: cooperation and mutual support, positive and supportive social behaviors, openness in communication and social participation, and responsibility and compliance in group behavior. Teachers reported notable progress in social skills such as cooperation and communication, which enhanced students’ social adjustment. Students’ collective efforts toward shared goals during the theatre process reflected the collaborative nature of group-based activities, as they coordinated their actions and responded to peers within the flow of shared performances (Frydman and Mayor, 2021; Lenakakis and Koltsida, 2017). This finding aligned with existing research highlighting the potential of structured drama practices to enhance social skills (Corbett et al., 2011; Eratay, 2012; Mpella et al., 2019).

The increase in empathetic attitudes and supportive behaviors suggested that the theatre process strengthened mutual understanding among students. Role-enactment and interactive scene work fostered prosocial behaviors by allowing students to experience social situations from multiple perspectives and adjust their responses accordingly (Özçınar, 2018). Similarly, improvements in communication skills indicated gains in both self-expression and active participation in social settings (Harlacher, 2022; Hoff and DuPaul, 1998; Scott et al., 2011). Behavioral improvements in areas such as compliance with social norms, self-regulation, and responsibility were interpreted through Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, which emphasizes observational learning and social reinforcement (Bandura, 1977). Through observing and modeling peer behaviors, students adapted to classroom norms and engaged in more constructive interactions. Overall, the findings indicated that theatre-based practices promoted key social competencies, including communication, responsibility, and social harmony, while also supporting more inclusive classroom environments for students with intellectual disabilities.

The final finding of the study indicated that theatre-based structured practices not only enhanced peer interactions but also positively transformed student–teacher relationships. According to participating teachers, students with developmental differences became more responsive, cooperative, and willing to follow rules throughout the theatre process. This positive shift was structured around three subthemes: rule compliance, sensitivity to instructions, and student–teacher interaction. Notably, improvements in areas such as adherence to rules, responsiveness to guidance, and emotional closeness suggested that these practices enhanced the quality of pedagogical relationships. As students developed a sense of responsibility through performances and group tasks, they appeared to internalize the teacher’s authority not as external control but as collaborative guidance (Chao et al., 2017; Kaya, 2023).

The observed increase in rule compliance could be linked to theatre’s role in supporting the internalization of social norms. The rule-bound and cooperative nature of theatre practices appeared to reinforce students’ sensitivity to classroom expectations, as students were required to follow sequences, wait for their turn, and respond to shared cues within structured activities (Oliver and Reschly, 2017; Reinke et al., 2020). This finding aligned with research emphasizing the positive disciplinary effects of arts-based interventions (Cook, 2020).

Teachers also reported greater responsiveness to instructions, reflecting improvements in attention, listening, and task engagement. The structured environment of theatre, particularly through the consistent use of verbal and nonverbal cues, supported students in recognizing and responding to instructional signals more effectively (Chao et al., 2017; Hoff and DuPaul, 1998). The theatre process also contributed to stronger emotional connections between students and teachers. Indicators such as eye contact, emotional expression, and openness in communication pointed to improvements in the quality of student–teacher relationships (Farmer et al., 2017; Torres, 2017). Within the framework of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, these developments were understood in terms of observational learning and social reinforcement processes facilitated by teacher modeling (Bandura, 1977).

The findings indicated that theatre-based practices functioned as structured, interaction-rich learning environments in which behavioral regulation and relational development emerged through participation in coordinated, role-based activities. The combination of repeated rehearsal, shared performance goals, and responsiveness to social and instructional cues supported observational learning, self-regulation, and perspective-taking. In this sense, classroom-based interventions operated as socially embedded processes through which students actively constructed behavioral and relational competencies, extending the application of Social Cognitive Theory to dynamic and practice-oriented classroom contexts. The observed changes reflected teachers’ evaluations collected at the end of the ten-week intervention period, based on their observations throughout the implementation process.

Limitations and directions for future research

This study presents several contextual and methodological limitations. First, it focuses exclusively on the experiences of special education teachers within a specific region. Although this focus allows for a rich and in-depth exploration, it limits the extent to which the findings can be generalized to broader geographical or cultural contexts. Second, data were collected solely through teacher interviews. While this method provided valuable pedagogical insights into classroom dynamics, including the voices of other stakeholders such as students, parents, and school administrators would offer a more comprehensive understanding of the observed outcomes. Third, the study examined only theatre-based structured practices. Future research that compares various creative arts-based interventions, such as music, visual arts, or creative writing, could enrich the literature by identifying diverse pathways to improving classroom management. Additionally, studies investigating teachers’ roles, emotional experiences, and professional support needs throughout these interventions could inform both practice and policy. Such research would offer meaningful contributions to the sustainable integration of arts-based approaches within special education systems.

Conclusion

This study examined the impact of theatre-based structured practices, implemented as part of a TÜBİTAK 4008-funded initiative, on classroom management within a pedagogically innovative model for students with intellectual disabilities. The findings highlighted that theatre-based practices could effectively support both behavioral regulation and relational dynamics in classroom settings. By integrating structured, role-based, and interactive activities into teaching processes, the intervention created meaningful opportunities for student engagement, participation, and social development. Beyond its immediate findings, this study offers practical and policy-relevant insights for the integration of arts-based approaches into special education. The results suggested that structured creative practices could serve as sustainable tools for enhancing inclusive classroom environments and supporting the holistic development of students with intellectual disabilities.