From Ancient Zhiguai Tales to Contemporary Animation: A Study of Visual Rhetoric in ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’ (2023)

Abstract

This study delves into the use of visual rhetorical strategies in 中国奇谭 Zhongguo Qitan ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’ (2023), particularly focusing on 鹅鹅鹅 E E E ‘Goose Mountain’ (henceforth ‘Goose’) directed by Hu Rui. We assert that ‘Goose’ transcodes and reinterprets the ancient Chinese zhiguai novella 阳羡书生 Yangxian Shusheng ‘The Scholar from Yangxian’ (henceforth ‘Scholar’) for a contemporary audience through the use of visual rhetoric, leading to a compelling contemporary rendition of this tale. As a silent animation, ‘Goose’ does so by adeptly incorporating visual depictions, especially animal-related imagery and ink painting aesthetics, drawn from the broader traditional zhiguai myths, or tales of the strange and traditional Chinese culture. The core argument hinges on visual rhetoric’s transformative potential. In ‘Goose’, the connection between tradition and contemporaneity is established through metaphor and metonymy. Initially a literary figure of speech, metaphor and metonymy now encompasses ‘visual rhetoric’, widely applied in interpreting visual arts. Visual rhetoric often employs various elements such as colour, shape, size, objects, composition and texture to convey information. This study highlights the role played by the inseparable link between traditional zhiguai narratives, the minzu/national style, and the contemporary animation technology in ‘Goose’, a transformative role that revitalizes ancient traditions to resonate with today’s viewership.

Keywords

contemporary Chinese animation supernatural traditional Chinese culture visual rhetoric

Introduction

In the 1910s–1920s, when animated films were introduced to China, they were referred to as katong 卡通 or katong pian 卡通片, which are Chinese adaptations of the English term ‘cartoon’ (Du, 2019: 3; Whyke and Brown, 2023a). This terminology reflects the medium’s blend of influences. The Wan Brothers, self-taught pioneers who created the first animated shorts in the 1920s, intentionally fused Chinese traditional art aesthetics and narratives with techniques from Western animation, particularly those they encountered in Disney animations (Chen, 2017; Du, 2019; Whyke and Brown, 2023a). The Wan Brothers were employees of the renowned Shanghai Animation Film Studio (上海美术电影制片厂) (SAFS) (Feng, 2021). Established in 1957, this studio specialized in various types of animation such as stop-motion animation, cut-out animation and ink-painting animation (Sun, 2020: 103). The first full-length animated work in China and supposedly Asia, 铁扇公主 Tieshan Gongzhu ‘Princess Iron Fan’, directed by the Wan brothers (万籁鸣 Wan Laiming and 万古蟾 Wan Guchan), marked the autonomous emergence of animation as an art form in China during wartime in 1941 (Du, 2019; Sun, 2020: 29). Adapted from a 16th-century masterpiece, 西游记 Xi You Ji ‘Journey to the West’, one of China’s ‘Four Great Classical Novels’ (四大名著 Si Da Ming Zhu), the film ushered in a golden era for Chinese animation (Feng, 2021). Encouraged by its success in Shanghai, Hong Kong, Japan and Southeast Asian countries (Sun, 2020: 81), the Wan brothers attempted a second animated feature in late 1940s Hong Kong, but faced financial and talent constraints (Du, 2017).

Following the Communist Party’s ascent to power in 1949, as part of a broader initiative to purge foreign influences from language, a new term, meishu dianying 美术电影or meishu pian 美术片 meaning ‘fine art film’, was endorsed (Du, 2019: 3; Whyke and Brown, 2023a). This went beyond a mere linguistic adaptation; it fundamentally redefined animation as a form of revitalizing Chinese traditional arts. Simultaneously, it symbolically distanced Chinese animation from its ties to international cinema (Du, 2019: 4; Whyke and Brown, 2023a). The shift in terminology also carries technological implications: framing the medium as an art form, evident in the designation of animators as ‘artists’ (Du, 2019: 4; Whyke et al., 2021), positioned Chinese animation as a direct continuation of historical cultural traditions. This not only set it apart from international cinema but also diverged from the latter’s association with technological modernity. The Wan brothers planned to produce another animated feature film 大闹天宫 Danao Tiangong ‘Uproar in Heaven’. Nonetheless, the film’s production was suspended owing to the Second World War. In 1961, the Wan brothers commenced production on ‘Uproar in Heaven’ (dir. Wan Laiming, 1961), adapted from ‘Journey to the West’ and aimed to embody the classic novel’s strong everlasting vitality and national features (Sun, 2020: 254–258). However, during the politically charged Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), animation, reflecting revolutionary ideals, veered away from so-called ‘bourgeois’ aesthetics and techniques (Du, 2019; Whyke and Brown, 2023a) such as the ink-painting style, and also mythological storytelling, including anthropomorphic animals, stripping it of its ‘authentic’ ‘Chinese’ style.

Between the late 1970s and mid-1980s, Shanghai Animation Film Studio experienced a second golden age after the Cultural Revolution. Iconic productions like 哪吒闹海 Nezha Nao Hai ‘Nezha Conquers the Dragon King’ (1979), 黑猫警长 Hei Mao Jingzhang ‘Inspector Black Cat’ (1984) and 葫芦兄弟 Hulu Xiongdi ‘Calabash Brothers’ (1986) drew from Chinese mythology (Yan, 2019). However, from 1978, as China’s reform and opening-up policies weakened socialist collectivism, the studio’s monopoly status, along with Chinese animation in general, faced challenges (Du, 2019). This period marked not only a creative zenith but also a reflection of shifting socio-political landscapes in China.

Shanghai Animation Film Studio (2023) rejuvenated Chinese animation by producing a phenomenal animated series 中国奇谭 Zhongguo Qitan ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’ (see Bilibili, 2023a). The animated series is constituted of eight independent narratives, which draw inspiration not only from the classic 16th-century novel ‘Journey to the West’ but also from ancient tales featuring monsters and mythical creatures known as yaoguai 妖怪. These narratives include小妖怪的夏天 Xiao Yaoguai De Xiatian ‘Nobody’, 鹅鹅鹅 E E E ‘Goose Mountain’, 林林 Linlin ‘She Wolf’, 乡村巴士带走了王孩儿和神仙 Xiangcun Bashi Daizoule Wang Haier He Shenxian ‘Village Bus’ (authors’ translation), 小满 Xiaoman ‘Ship Down the Well’, 飞鸟与鱼 Feiniao Yu Yu ‘Null Island’, 小卖部 Xiao Maibu ‘Kiosk’ (authors’ translation) and 玉兔 Yu Tu ‘Fly Me to the Earth’, which are all rooted in traditional Chinese culture yet manifest diversity as a collection. According to the official introduction of ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’, the narratives’ settings span from the vast North China to the quaint residential hutong areas, from a futuristic universe to bustling native lands. Each narrative revolves around a distinct theme: ‘Nobody’ explores a trivial monster’s aspirations and struggles; ‘Goose Mountain’ portrays inescapable worldly desires and emotions; ‘She Wolf’ narrates a fable of hunters and half-human she-wolves; ‘Village Bus’ pertains to native-soil nostalgia; ‘Ship Down the Well’ recounts the maturation of an ordinary boy in ancient China; ‘Null Island’ portrays a mysterious folk character in a contemporary setting; ‘Kiosk’ captures daily life and supernatural entities in old Beijing hutongs; and ‘Fly Me to the Earth’ presents a tale of classical mythology in a science-fiction context (Wang, 2023). Since each narrative has a different director, the series also showcases a diverse array of Chinese artistic methods, including 2D computer animation, papercut art, puppetry, stop-motion, computer-generated imagery (CGI) and cel shading. It also incorporates elements such as pencil sketches and Chinese ink wash painting (Chen and Liu, 2023; The Paper, 2023).

Since debuting on 哔哩哔哩 Bilibili, a leading Chinese video platform, in January 2023, the series ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’ swiftly accumulated over 65.24 million views within two weeks, reaching about 260 million views by April 2023 (Bilibili, 2023a; Li, 2023). On 微博Weibo (2023), a popular Chinese micro-blogging platform, the series regularly featured on the ‘hot search’ list, gaining both media and social media traction. It achieved high accolades from professional critics and casual viewers alike (Shangguan, 2023), attaining an average rating of 9.9/10 on Bilibili and 9.6/10 on 豆瓣 Douban, a reputable rating platform for cultural products (Bilibili, 2023b; Douban, 2023). Some lauded it as the Chinese rendition of the esteemed animated series ‘Love, Death & Robots’ (2019) (The Paper, 2023; Zhong, 2023). ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’ falls under the genre of 志怪 ‘zhiguai’, which refers to accounts of the strange and supernatural. Zhiguai is an age-old literary genre originating in the Warring States era (481–221 BCE) (Campany, 1991; Chiang, 2005: 12–13; DeWoskin, 1977). This genre gained popularity and became well established during the Six Dynasties (222–589 CE), featuring a plethora of supernatural phenomena, mythical creatures and figures practising esoteric arts (Campany, 1996: 99; Chen, 2002). Famous zhiguai authors include the Qing Dynasty’s 蒲松龄 Pu Songling (1640–1715), known for 聊斋志异 Liaozhai zhiyi ‘Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio’, and 纪昀 Ji Yun (1724–1805), author of 阅微草堂笔记 Yuewei caotang biji ‘Jottings from the Grass Hut for Examining Minutiae’ (Chan, 1998: 8; Chang and Chang, 1998: 1, 42). Their works, along with zhiguai tales embedded in non-literary forms such as historical treatises and religious scriptures, shaped the rich tapestry of this genre (Campany, 1996: 151; Zeitlin, 1993: 4–5).

In this study, we focus our attention on the second episode of the animated series ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’, namely the episode ‘Goose Mountain’ (henceforth ‘Goose’). This episode is an adaptation of the zhiguai novella 阳羡书生 Yangxian Shusheng ‘The Scholar from Yangxian’ (henceforth ‘Scholar’) (Wang, 2023), originally featured in the zhiguai anthology 续齐谐记 Xu Qi Xie Ji ‘More Records of Qi Xie; Continuation of the Records of Universal Harmony’. Compiled by 吴均 Wu Jun (469–520 CE) circa 510–520 CE during the South Dynasty (420–589 CE) (Campany, 1990, 2015; Ren, 2021), this anthology serves as a significant source of zhiguai literature.

In ‘Goose’, the connection between history and contemporary reality is established through metaphor and metonymy. Initially a literary figure of speech, metaphor involves transferring a characteristic from one object to another, which despite their differences share certain similarities. Similar to metaphors, metonyms are employed in everyday conversation, literature and rhetorical texts. However, while a metaphor implies a comparison, a metonym is a component or characteristic of an entity that serves as a representation for the entity itself. These concepts have transformed into the field of ‘visual rhetoric’, extensively applied in the interpretation of visual arts. This encompasses a range of visual elements such as colour, shape, size, objects, composition, texture and more.

Drawing from Liu’s (2015, 2018) framework on visual rhetoric, which focuses on ‘representational visual objects’ in various media forms such as paintings, advertisements, films, video games and similar mediums, we analyse how the animated episode ‘Goose’ transcodes the original ‘Scholar’ text and reinterprets the story through the strategic use of visual metaphors and metonymy, particularly through animal-related imagery and traditional Chinese ink wash painting. Through the deliberate use of visual rhetoric, the dialogue-less adaptation ‘Goose’ weaves these elements of traditional zhiguai narratives and Chinese culture with pertinent contemporary societal issues. This fusion firmly roots the narrative in traditional Chinese culture but also profoundly resonates with today’s audience, showcasing an evolving understanding of these narratives and how they are able to effectively translate to the visual medium of animation. Our exploration highlights that this evolving understanding demonstrates the pivotal role played by the inextricable link between the mythological animation genre, traditional zhiguai narratives and the contemporary artistic animation style in ‘Goose’ as transformative agents that revitalize ancient traditions for contemporary viewership.

Understanding the Chinese zhiguai or the ‘strange’

Distinct interpretations of the concept of ‘strange’ are encapsulated in the Chinese words guai 怪, yi 异 and qi 奇. These terms, frequently employed in the zhiguai genre – a branch of Chinese literature centred around strange tales and anomalies, are often interwoven and used to describe one another. Zeitlin (1993: 5–6) offers a comprehensive analysis of these words. Yi, in its most broad and neutral sense, signifies ‘different’ or ‘foreign’. Guai typically carries a negative connotation, symbolizing the ‘weird, uncanny, abnormal, or unfathomable’ (p. 6), and can also imply the ‘supernatural’ or a ‘phenomenon dictated by unnatural laws’ (p. 6). Qi, while technically referencing a deviation from normalcy, frequently serves as an aesthetic evaluation term, implying something ‘rare’, ‘unique’, ‘astonishing’ or ‘extraordinary’ (p. 6).

Zhiguai, an ancient Chinese genre merging historical records, philosophical thoughts and fantastical elements, has been the subject of continuous scholarly debate. This debate focuses on the genre’s origins and evolution, and its relationship with the concepts of ‘fiction’ and ‘belief’ (Campany, 1996; Chan, 1998; Fu, 2019; Whyke and Brown, 2023b). Over time, they garnered popularity, particularly during the Qing Dynasty, and their influence extended to the extent of their incorporation into Chinese historical accounts (Chan, 1998; Whyke and Brown, 2023b).

During the early 20th century, the zhiguai genre faced severe criticism, notably from the May Fourth movement and 周作人 Zhou Zuoren (1885–1967), who categorized them as ‘inhumane literature’ harmful to societal growth (Fu, 2019; Luo, 2009: 207, cited in Whyke and Brown, 2023b). However, the Chinese Communist Party, especially Chairman Mao Zedong, saw potential in zhiguai for a proto-Marxist critique and political allegory, leading to a politically endorsed revival of the genre (Fu, 2019; Luo, 2009; Whyke and Brown, 2023b). During the Cultural Revolution initiated by Mao, ‘conquer all the oxen ghosts and snake gods’ (打倒一切牛鬼蛇神 da dao yi qie niu gui she shen) or ‘sweep aside all ox-demons and snake-spirits’ (横扫一切牛鬼蛇神 hengsao yiqie niugui sheshen) served as popular political slogans against ‘class enemies’ (阶级敌人 jieji diren) and ‘feudal superstitions’ (封建迷信 fengjian mixin) (King, 2013: 245). Writers strived to negotiate a way that preserved traditional zhiguai writings while, at the same time, complied with the Chinese Communist Party’s vision to establish socialist modernity politically (see Greene, 2019). For instance, a novel 一只绣花鞋 Yizhi Xiuhua Xie ‘An Embroidered Shoe’ (authors’ translation) was popular during the Cultural Revolution, which was composed by 张宝瑞 Zhang Baorui (1952– ), who was a journalist of Xinhua News Agency (新华社 Xinhua She), an official state news agency of the People’s Republic of China. Notwithstanding its seeming zhiguai nature and supernatural depictions, the atheistic narrative actually concerned the Chinese Communist Party’s special service and crackdowns on a secret organization of the Chinese Nationalist Party (Zhang, 2000). This revival, therefore, failed to maintain the original integrity of zhiguai. Many stories were heavily edited or outright censored to serve political narratives. The terminology ‘ghosts’ (鬼 gui), often featured in zhiguai, was repurposed in political rhetoric to label and ostracize political adversaries (Luo, 2009; Whyke and Brown, 2023b).

This is significant because zhiguai represents a universe where the boundaries between humans and nonhumans, as well as between social norms and the anomalous or antinomian, are in constant flux. This dynamic is often embodied through morally ambiguous shapeshifting characters. One of the most frequently recurring and extensively researched of such shapeshifters is the fox-spirit (狐狸精 hulijing). However, zhiguai is replete with various nonhuman entities, serving as markers at the boundaries between humans, animals and spirits. It is precisely zhiguai’s preoccupation with the liminal and ‘strange’ that has, at times, made it a vehicle for social criticism (Fu, 2019: 42; Whyke and Brown, 2023b).

These developments have significantly influenced the perception and interpretation of zhiguai literature in mainland China and beyond. Beyond China, the genre has piqued interest and garnered scholarly attention in neighbouring East Asian countries, particularly in Japan, where it resonates with a parallel tradition known as yokai (monster, ghost, or demon). The interchange between zhiguai and yokai exemplifies the dynamic cross-cultural exchange in East Asia. Many yokai tales bear striking resemblances to zhiguai narratives from China (Foster, 2015).

The ubiquity of fox spirits, including the ‘nine-tailed fox spirits’ (九尾狐 jiuweihu), in zhiguai literature is tied to their recurring presence in the broader folklore of East Asia. They are related to similar fox spirits such as kitsune in Japan, kumiho in Korea, and Holy tinh in Vietnam. However, as noted by Smyers (1999), these beings possess distinct indigenous features and occupy specific places in local cosmologies and lore. This complicates the notion of seeing them all as variants of the ‘same’ creature, whilst also underscoring the enduring impact and adaptability of zhiguai across regional boundaries, illustrating its role as a cultural touchstone in the broader East Asian context.

Inside China, the genre has been primarily characterized as a tool of proto-Marxist critique, undermining its rich connection to indigenous cosmologies and its inherent potential for diverse, ambiguous meanings (Fu, 2019; Whyke and Brown, 2023b). The concept of zhiguai as a ‘minor literature’ is essential here, introducing it as a vehicle for peripheral, non-elite voices and social critique, while accentuating its origins in 小说 xiaoshuo, meaning ‘small/minor talk/discourse’, or essentially gossip (Chan, 1998; Luo, 2009; Whyke and Brown, 2023b). Initially, xiaoshuo referred to street talk, alley gossip and unofficial histories, which later became the foundation of zhiguai, offering a vast collection of orally transmitted hearsay, including strange tales (Chan, 1998; Luo, 2009; Whyke and Brown, 2023b).

Anomalies within zhiguai stories were interpreted as socio-political portents, with the natural world viewed as reflecting the political state of human society (Mollgaard, 2010; Sterckx, 2002; Whyke and Brown, 2023b). Strange events could signify societal crises and potential political downfalls, making these ‘strange’ tales crucial indicators of cosmopolitical conditions (Whyke and Brown, 2023b; Zeitlin, 1993). However, such characterization of anomalies as reflections of the cosmopolitical centre challenges the idea of zhiguai as ‘minor literature’, as they do not genuinely represent otherness (Whyke and Brown, 2023b). Despite their potential ability to critique societal norms and reveal unknown aspects of the natural world, zhiguai primarily serve as mirrors to the societal centre, rather than spaces of otherness (Whyke and Brown, 2023b).

Zhiguai presents an enthralling intersection between orthodoxy and heterodoxy. This genre possesses a dual nature. It is perceived as a ‘corrupted’ form of history within the framework of Confucian orthodoxy, while concurrently acting as a potent and chaotic force capable of contradicting and disrupting the mainstream narrative (Fu, 2019; Whyke and Brown, 2023b). A significant feature of zhiguai is the utilization of allegorical ‘double meanings’ or coded ‘Aesopian language’, contributing to the genre’s paradoxical fluctuation (Whyke and Brown, 2023b). These narrative strategies blur the lines of interpretation, allowing these stories to serve various purposes, from morality tales to ‘accurate’ depictions of seemingly strange yet potentially real events or natural phenomena (Whyke and Brown, 2023b). This complex interplay complicates the standard categorization of ‘fiction’ versus ‘fact’, a feature distinguishing zhiguai from conventional storytelling. Examples of this can be found in the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) works of Pu Songling and Ji Yun, who include tales featuring occurrences that contemporary readers would recognize as real phenomena (Whyke and Brown, 2023b).

Zhiguai’s relationship with folklore, or folk beliefs, is a contentious one (Chan, 1998; Whyke and Brown, 2023b). Though clearly drawing upon oral traditions and sometimes characterizing stories as having been gathered from ‘ordinary people’, zhiguai were texts written (down) and read by elites (Chan, 1998; Luo, 2009; Minford, 2006; Whyke and Brown, 2023b). Zhiguai is thus testament to a prevalent fascination with the ‘strange’ or ‘other’ among elites, interlacing elements of the everyday and the extraordinary in its narratives. This notion is also underscored by Naquin and Rawski (1987, 203, cited in Whyke and Brown, 2023b), who caution against oversimplified understanding of “whose beliefs these stories genuinely reflect” (emphasis in original). Regardless of whether it is considered a ‘minor literature’ or ‘elite lore’, zhiguai encapsulates a rich culture of storytelling that continues to both challenge and captivate contemporary readers and audiences (off and on screen), oscillating between orthodoxy and transgression, fact and fiction, the popular and the elite, and the central and the peripheral.

Zhiguai’s extension to animation, the minzu/national style in animation and its importance for ‘Visual Rhetoric’

The exploration of zhiguai’s evolution and its influence on contemporary media and storytelling is a relatively recent development, reflecting the genre’s continual transformation and its capacity to adapt amidst socio-cultural changes. ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’, a contemporary manifestation of these ancient tales, presents an excellent opportunity to further investigate this relatively uncharted territory. Consequently, this study probes how an ancient zhiguai novella ‘Scholar’ is contemporized in a silent Chinese animation series like ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’ through the use of visual rhetoric. Despite this perspective being pivotal to understanding the continuity and change of Chinese zhiguai narratives through the contemporary animation medium, it is notably absent in existing literature, thus highlighting the research gap that our study aims to bridge.

Chinese mythology has consistently served as a substantial source of inspiration for Chinese animation, providing a unique platform for cultural expression, historical introspection and societal critique. The convergence of Chinese mythology and contemporary Chinese animation is an emerging research field, gaining traction in recent years. According to MacDonald (2019), the development of the ‘fantastic’ in literature, critical theory, social history and film –particularly when tracing the zhiguai tradition – in China reveals its significant hybrid nature influenced by the country’s political frameworks. This hybridity is mirrored in the evolving perception and status of the fantastic in contemporary Chinese cinema and literature. While state regulation, audience expectations and cultural attitudes have shaped its portrayal, animation has surfaced as a medium that affords more creative freedom for the fantastic. The achievements of recent Chinese animations such as Monkey King: Hero Is Back (2015), Big Fish and Begonia (2016), The Wind Guardians (2018), White Snake: Origins (2019) and Nezha (2019), notable for their status as ‘mythological epics’, have been described as a pivotal moment in advancing technical and digital capabilities (Whyke et al., 2021). Additionally, these successes are attributed to their portrayal of ‘Chinese national cultural values’ (Wu and Wang, 2020: 290, cited in Whyke and Brown, 2023a). Such films illustrate how animation evolved into a permissible form of mythology that aligned with the state’s ‘minzu (national) style’ (民族风格 minzu fengge).

Du (2019) defines ‘minzu/national style’ in Chinese animation as the seamless integration of traditional Chinese art, literature, culture and techniques, reflecting a distinct representation of Chinese national identity. Originating in the 1950s, this concept is closely linked to the establishment of the Shanghai Meishu Film Studio/Shanghai Animation Film Studio (SAFS) and the formation of the ‘Chinese School of Animation’ (中国学派 zhongguo xuepai). Scholars often associate this school with the development of the minzu style, emphasizing its unique attributes and the collective identity of artists (Yin, 1988). Huang (2022) challenges this conventional definition of the ‘Chinese School of Animation’, arguing that portraying it as a collection of meishu films with a minzu style reflects a collectivist stance rooted in socialist China. He contends that this view downplays individual contributions, particularly by canonizing Shanghai Animation Film Studio (SAFS) films, disconnecting the ‘Chinese School’ from its historical and industrial contexts. Huang suggests this approach is a strategy to sidestep questions about the viability of meishu films in the face of foreign competition. The term ‘Chinese School’, with its meishu film productions and minzu style, carries nationalistic undertones, emphasizing a rejection of foreign influence and promoting a unique, indigenous animation style on a national scale. Recent discussions on box office hits like Monkey King: Hero Is Back (2015), Big Fish and Begonia (2016) and White Snake: Origins (2019) use the term ‘Chinese School of Animation’ rhetorically to symbolize a xuepai revival, shifting from its earlier application to SAFS animators in the 1990s. Huang argues that these discussions oversimplify the ‘Chinese School of Animation’ by reducing it to a symbol of a specific style characterized solely by incorporating Chinese themes or traditional features in contemporary domestic animated productions.

The institutionalized public and official discussions surrounding the concept of Chinese animation’s ‘minzu/national style’ hold particular significance here (Du, 2019: 17). This is because it distinguishes itself from perceptions of animation in other countries by virtue of its deep-rooted prevalence in mainstream Chinese discourse. MacDonald (2019: 3) observes that this relevance extends beyond animation, threading through all forms of cultural production and anchoring them to a distinctive, authentic Chinese style. This characteristic is especially poignant in the context of animation, given its persistent mandate to project its ‘Chineseness’ (Whyke et al., 2021). Consequently, animation emerges as a vibrant canvas upon which the manifold facets of China’s national identity are regularly visualized and interpreted (Whyke et al, 2021).

The concept of ‘national uniqueness’ in film productions has its roots in the early origins of Chinese cinema (Berry, 1992; MacDonald, 2019). The elusive and vague ‘ideal’ of ‘minzu-characteristics’ not only presents issues due to its essentialism but also serves as a versatile mechanism of censorship (Berry, 1992). The Chinese authorities hold the responsibility of choosing which elements from China’s rich history and diverse cultures are deemed authentic in presenting a unified representation of the country. Additionally, they decide which characteristics are considered genuinely ‘Chinese’, free from ‘foreign influences’ (Berry, 1992; Whyke et al., 2021). This suggests a deliberate practice of highlighting certain expressions of Chinese culture while purposefully omitting others in a strategic manner (Whyke et al., 2021). It revolves around a circular paradox: films were expected to showcase distinct Chinese traits, but these characteristics were never clearly defined or explicitly stated; nevertheless, by extension, any film that gained approval must have inherently demonstrated them. Thus, the aesthetic blueprint for such characteristics was set by the cinematic works that received approval – despite the evident influences of socialist realism in their visual styles and artistic approach adopted from both Hollywood and the Soviet (Berry, 1992; Whyke et al., 2021). This situation created a self-referential cycle, whereby ‘Chinese characteristics’ were defined by what was approved, and what was approved defined ‘Chinese characteristics’. In this context, cultural creations serve as reflections of an envisioned ideal, representing ‘culture’ not as the practices and beliefs we currently embrace, but rather as those that ideally align with our identity (Michaels, cited in Appiah, 2005: 309; Whyke et al., 2021). The notion that Chinese animation should prominently emphasize its cultural identity suggests culture as an entity that needs to be confined to certain attributes in order to genuinely encapsulate ‘itself’ (Whyke et al., 2021).

Within this context, there is a lack of research on how the traditional Chinese zhiguai genre has influenced contemporary Chinese animation by integrating these narratives into their productions, while concurrently offering a unique fusion with Chinese contemporaneity. We aim to delve into the adaptation of the zhiguai tradition in ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’, endeavouring to uncover how the episode ‘Goose’ both transcodes and reinterprets the tradition while maintaining relevance for a contemporary audience, namely through visual rhetoric.

In his work on ‘Visual Rhetoric’, scholar Liu (2015, 2018) strives to critique and innovate traditional rhetorical theories within the realm of visual studies, drawing upon resources from the rhetorical theories of notable scholars such as Roland Barthes, Kennedy Burke and Rudolph Arnheim. Since the era of these distinguished scholars, the expansion of rhetorical theory has included nonverbal signs, thereby providing a fresh perspective on visual rhetoric and furthering the concept of visual logic. The 1980s and 1990s witnessed a shift in visual rhetoric studies towards ‘object rhetoric’, encompassing space studies and public spaces such as squares, museums, amusement parks and ceremonies, thereby significantly expanding the breadth of visual rhetoric (Haskins, 2003). In the 21st century, further diversification of visual rhetoric’s text forms, theories and methodologies was achieved by scholars like Kenney and Scott (2003) and Hill and Helmers (2004). Essentially, visual rhetoric research emerged in the 1960s, flourished in the 1990s and underwent rapid growth in the 21st century (Olson, 2007). During its 20 years of dynamic development in the West, it evolved from advertising studies to encompass interdisciplinary research involving politics, news, communication and art criticism. Conversely, the Chinese scholarship of visual rhetoric is still in its infancy, though significant strides have been made in recent years.

Liu (2015, 2018: 157) categorizes the text subjects of visual rhetoric into three principal visual classifications: the first category includes representational visual objects, primarily manifested in media text objects such as painting, advertising, film, gaming, tattoos and others that engage the visual form of ‘viewing’ practice. The second category encompasses experiential visual objects, predominantly represented in spatial text subjects like Disneyland or Universal Studios. Lastly, the third category involves processual visual objects, mainly exemplified in image event texts such as performance art events, celebration ceremonies, social struggle events and other visual forms of subjective ‘participation’ practice. In summary, different textual forms correspond to different visual practices, and there exist different understand practices ‘structures’ in visual ‘grammar’ – media text creates a structure of seeing, spatial text provides a structure of experience and event text forms a structure of engagement. Through the strategic use of visual texts and the strategic construction and production of visual discourse, visual rhetoric achieves a practice and method of persuasion, dialogue and communication. Based on this categorization, the animation ‘Goose’ falls into the first category that appeals to the ‘viewing’ practice form. In the era of visual culture, visual practice and its connotations hold a significant place in our mediated lives, operating alongside language to construct the rhetorical order of daily life. Similarly, visual rhetoric provides insight into how imagery serves as a valuable tool for comprehending culture, beliefs, principles and lifestyles. The mechanisms for traditionally encoding such information within language systems, metaphor and metonymy, also exist in visual practice. Metaphor and metonymy, as two basic methods of language rhetoric and two fundamental modes of human thought, occupy important positions within the theoretical landscape of visual rhetoric and serve as the primary methodological resources for analysing the mechanisms of dynamic image discourse construction in ‘Goose’.

Our objective is to unravel the nuanced ways in which visual rhetoric is employed in ‘Goose’ for a contemporary audience by adeptly selecting and deploying visual elements intricately tied to traditional zhiguai narratives, thereby achieving optimal communicative impact. Central to this exploration are the strategic applications of visual metaphors and visual metonymy within ‘Goose’, which respectively serve as a means to transcode the original text and reinterpret the story. Visual metaphor, operating as a subtle yet powerful device, involves the use of implicit comparison drawn from zhiguai conventions. In ‘Goose’, this includes metaphorical visual depictions featuring animal figures, symbolically representing facets of the contemporary human condition. Conversely, grappling with the challenge of expressing more abstract concepts directly in visual rhetoric, ‘Goose’ employs another approach that Liu (2015, 2018) terms ‘visual metonymy’. ‘Visual metonymy’ refers to specific visual elements that represent abstract concepts. In the context of ‘Goose’, visual metonymy manifests through traditional animal imagery common in zhiguai and the incorporation of ink-painting aesthetics, which serves to depict the concept of ‘minzu/national style’ in Chinese animation imbued with rich Chinese elements made relevant for a contemporary audience.

Visual rhetoric in Yao-Chinese Folktales

The general storyline of ‘Goose’ is analogous to that in the Six Dynasties ‘Scholar’ novella. In the original ‘Scholar’ novella, the lead character, Xu Yan, lugs a cage filled with geese over his shoulder. A scholar sneaks onto Xu’s back by shrinking down and slipping through the cage’s crevices. Later, the scholar extends an invitation to Xu for a lavish banquet, unveiling an array of items – from utensils to crockery, dishes and even his own wife – all mysteriously emerging from his mouth. After the scholar dozes off, his alluring wife reveals a male clandestine lover from her mouth, urging Xu to maintain silence. The wife’s clandestine lover then regurgitates another secret female lover of his own. Anticipating the scholar’s impending awakening, a complex series of actions unfolds: the man swallows the woman who came out from his mouth, the wife swallows the man who came out from her mouth, and the scholar swallows his wife who came out from his mouth. The tale concludes with the scholar bidding adieu to Xu and presenting him with a bronze platter as a parting gift.

‘Scholar’ alludes to emotional entanglements, desire and domination, trust and betrayal, as well as oppression and defiance. In the novella, although the scholar is seemingly powerful, his superior status is mitigated by the feminine power as the plot develops yet, in the end, the narrative returns to a male-dominated setting common to the ancient zhiguai tradition. In ‘Scholar’, the goose cage does not enlarge after the scholar enters it and the scholar does not alter his own size, which indicates that the world or a man will not change due to a woman (Wiebe, 2017). Significantly, the narrative places emphasis on infinity, in which mouths embody storytelling and oral production common to the zhiguai tradition, while secret lovers metaphorically embody one’s hidden identities and creative potential.

The animated version ‘Goose’ narrates a pedlar who, en route to delivering two geese, fortuitously encounters a limping fox on Goose Mountain. The pedlar agrees to transport the fox to his desired destination, who then proceeds to miraculously shrink and enter his goose cage. Upon arrival at Goose Mountain, as a token of gratitude for the pedlar’s assistance and to make amends for swallowing his geese, the fox offers exquisite food and wine for shared consumption. In addition, he conjures a female rabbit companion from his mouth to accompany them. After the fox falls asleep inebriated, the rabbit concubine produces a pig monster from her mouth, who then engages in merriment with the pedlar. The fox awakens suddenly, prompting the rabbit concubine to hurriedly produce a folding screen, behind which she and the fox fall asleep together. The pig monster proceeds to summon a beautifully dressed goose concubine, who shares a drink with the pedlar. Soon, the pig monster also succumbs to the alcohol, at which point the goose concubine confesses to the pedlar that she harbours no affection for the pig monster and instead desires to transform into one of his caged geese to venture into the world beyond with him. Just as the pedlar is moved by the goose concubine’s proposition, the fox is on the brink of awakening. To avoid detection, the pig monster hastily swallows the goose concubine, leaving only an earring behind, before being engulfed by the rabbit concubine. Upon sobering up, the fox ingests the rabbit concubine once again, expressing regret to the pedlar. Consequently, everything the pedlar experienced, which was initially constructed within the fox’s mouth, is reduced to nothingness, leaving him with an intangible longing and the goose concubine’s transformed earring flying freely among the imposing mountains, eluding capture and evoking a sense of melancholy and relief.

We propose that ‘Goose’ parallels ‘Scholar’ in the narrative aspects concerning emotional intricacies, desires, dominance, trust, betrayal and the dynamics of oppression and defiance. However, in order to achieve this, two notable distinctions emerge in the contemporary silent animated adaptation of this narrative, centred around the employment of visual rhetoric strategies – visual metonymy and metaphor. Metonymy, as a visual rhetorical device, serves to transcode the original ‘Scholar’ novella, while metaphor contributes to the visual reinterpretation of the ‘Scholar’ for a contemporary audience.

Visual metonymy

In ‘Goose’, all characters take the form of animal figures or yao (monsters) on screen, diverging from the human characters present in the ‘Scholar’ novella. This shift serves as a form of visual metonymy, a creative choice made in the animated episode to transcode the original text on screen for today’s audience, whilst maintaining a degree of fidelity to traditional animal symbols related to zhiguai. This choice is significant as it reflects a visual attempt to align with the broader abstract concept of the ‘minzu/national style’ in Chinese animation, which intertwines contemporaneity with cultural heritage. In ‘Goose’, the scholar is a fox, the fox’s concubine is a rabbit, the rabbit’s beau is a pig, and the pig’s concubine is a goose. Apart from the goose that already exists in the original novella, all other animals are correlated with paranormal forces.

In ‘Goose’, the fact that the fox’s concubine is a rabbit, from whose mouth her pig beau emerges, is consistent with the traditional inference that rabbits’ mouths serve more than just an eating function. Rabbits are well-established celestial animals in traditional Chinese culture, owing to the famed mythological Jade Rabbit who lives on the moon with a goddess called Chang’e. We suggest that the employment of a rabbit in ‘Goose’ is also ascribed to an immemorial misconstrual regarding rabbits. For instance, according to an atheistic book 论衡 Lun Heng by 王充 Wang Chong (circa 27–97 CE), ‘rabbits suck their fur and become pregnant, and then they give birth to progenies through mouths’ (兔吮毫而怀子, 及其子生, 从口而出) (Lun Heng, Chapter Qi Guai) (authors’ translation). As for pigs, the most well-known pig monster in Chinese culture is a Buddhist monk 猪八戒 Zhu Bajie in ‘Journey to the West’. In stark contrast to孙悟空 Sun Wukong who is the invincible Monkey King and a revered cultural icon, the pig monster Zhu Bajie in the novel is depicted as a multifaceted character characterized by optimism and kindness yet also lasciviousness, laziness and gluttony. One of the most famed anecdotes of Zhu Bajie is that he swallows a precious ginseng fruit without chewing it carefully, and the phrase ‘Zhu Bajie swallowing the ginseng fruit’ has become a fixed expression describing conduct of wolfing down or doing things carelessly or greedily. In ‘Goose’, it is noteworthy that the pig monster has both a rabbit beau (the fox’s concubine) and a goose concubine whom he later proceeds to swallow as she attempts to seduce the pedlar, aligning with Zhu Bajie’s lasciviousness and gluttony. Aside from the use of animal figures in ‘Goose’, an important form of visual metonymy pointing to the wider zhiguai tradition, the consistent theme of mouths and swallowing throughout the episode is significant in the same vein. As discussed previously, mouths were a central part of the original ‘Scholar’ novella. In ‘Goose’, we argue that, as a form of visual metonymy, the mouths likewise transcode ‘Scholar’ by functioning to allude to broader themes common to the zhiguai tradition, particularly infinite desires, danger and the unpredictable nature of human beings. As Director Hu Rui also states, the in-depth and diverse interpretations of these themes are utilized to ‘share discoveries from Chinese zhiguai tales with everyone’ (Zhou, 2023: np). The use of animal mouths as a form of visual metonymy in such cases, therefore, relies on the contemporary audience to actively and diversely explore traditional zhiguai themes, reflecting both the powerful cultural appeal of this ancient story and the enthusiasm of a contemporary audience for the transcoding of such Six Dynasties’ strange tales into contemporary animation.

The fox scholar holds particular significance in ‘Goose’. According to Director Hu Rui, the portrayal of the fox scholar is inspired by a cunning fox character in Shanghai Animation Film Studio’s (1983) work, ‘The Legend of Sealed Book’ (Tian Shu Qi Tan) 天书奇谭 (Zhou, 2023). This choice aimed to augment the scholar’s mysterious and enigmatic qualities through theatrical makeup. Hu Rui further acknowledges that the portrayal of the fox scholar in ‘Goose’ is not an entirely original creation but aligns with the characteristics found in Six Dynasties’ zhiguai tales. The figure of the fox, especially as mysterious beings with supernatural forces like fox fairies, is a prevalent feature in zhiguai writings. This is exemplified by the nine-tailed fox in the ancient work Shan Hai Jing ‘Classic of Mountains and Seas’ (circa 124 BCE), fox-transformed seductresses in Pu Songling’s ‘Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio’ and Ji Yun’s ‘Jottings from the Grass Hut for Examining Minutiae’ (see Chan, 1998; Chang and Chang, 1998; Whyke and Brown, 2023b). In contemporary China, foxes continue to play a significant role in folk religion (民间宗教 minjian zongjiao). For instance, in northeast China, foxes, along with weasels, hedgehogs, snakes and rats, are collectively referred to as the ‘five great families’ (五大家 wu da jia) (Kang, 2006). These creatures were worshipped during the Qing dynasty and the Republic (1912–1949) period (Kang, 2006: 4). Therefore, in creating ‘Goose’, Hu Rui consciously employs visual metonymy to connect with the contemporary audience’s shared cultural identity by deliberately selecting classic animal symbols common in zhiguai to trigger cultural identification.

The prowess of ‘Goose’ extends beyond transcoding the original ‘Scholar’ text for contemporary animation through the use of visual metonymy embodied by the conventional zhiguai animal symbols. Notably, Director Hu Rui’s adaptation of the Southern Dynasty’s ‘Scholar’ showcases a profound interpretation and fusion of Chinese traditional painting techniques. Hu Rui has openly acknowledged the demanding nature of this artistic process, emphasizing the meticulous effort required for each frame (Zhou, 2023). This artistic innovation underscores the cultural richness and complexity of ‘Goose’ as an animated contemporary reinterpretation of the ‘Scholar’ novella. In this regard, visual metonymy relates to the episode’s use of the 2D ‘ink wash’ style simulated by CG for the animated background, which visually depicts the Chinese ‘minzu/national style’, allowing viewers to connect with the cultural identity through the evocative use of traditional imagery. As stated by Du (2019: 131), Chinese ink-painting animation embodies the ‘minzu/national style’ characterized by an ‘aesthetic of absence’, contributing to a unique visual language. In ‘Goose’, this is achieved through the traditional hemp-fibre stroke effect, 麻皮皴 (ma-pi cun), adding depth to the portrayal of traditional Chinese culture. This effect, rooted in Dong Yuan’s landscape painting during the Tang Dynasty (618–907) and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960), employs simulated ink washes and brushwork to evoke scenes of rivers, mountains and misty landscapes, aligning with the distinctive aesthetic of traditional Chinese ink painting (Guo, 2010). Combining ink wash painting and sketching techniques in ‘Goose’, it evokes an effect reminiscent of earlier Chinese animations such as 鹿铃 Lu Ling ‘The Deer’s Bell’ (dir. Wu Qiang and Tang Cheng, 1982) and 山水情 Shan Shui Qing ‘Feeling from Mountain and Water’ (dir. Te Wei, 1988). Xu (2023) observes that the colour treatment in ‘Goose’ in particular marks a ground-breaking moment in the history of Chinese animation, introducing a black and white colour scheme at times heightened by the strategic use of red. This is particularly evident in depicting the ethereal red fox face and his objects, such as the red wine bowl, which cause the pedlar to fall into an almost dream-like state marked by the enlargement of his head and eyes with black spiral-like circles within. This also occurs right before the fox presents his rabbit concubine to the pedlar and, notably, the sky turns red again just before the pig swallows his goose concubine following her brief intimate interaction with the pedlar, whom she wants to take her, and he, in turn, desires to do so. We argue that the colour scheme functions as another expression of visual metonymy in ‘Goose’, alluding to the otherworldly traditional influences of zhiguai throughout the episode, particularly symbolizing the themes of danger and desire, whilst the consistent use of darker colours creates an eerie emptiness central to zhiguai, revolving around themes of dominance, betrayal and the subtleties of oppression and defiance. This adheres to the principle of ‘less is more’ and ‘colour is emptiness’ reminiscent of the blank space characteristic of traditional Chinese ink painting. This intentional visual approach in ‘Goose’ reflects a profound utilization of visual metonymy by incorporating contemporary anxieties centred around its thematic constructs about intimate relationships into familiar visual expressions of traditional culture while allowing space for the imagination of today’s viewers. By leveraging minzu characteristics as a cultural foundation for visual metonymy, ‘Goose’ is therefore able to successfully achieve modernization in its expression, essentially conveying the idea of contemporizing traditional culture in today’s animation.

Visual metaphor

In ‘Goose’, Hu Rui chooses to reinterpret the original ‘Scholar’ text and tell his silent narrative through the use of visual metaphor, or animal symbolism, to engage contemporary viewers and connect them through shared emotional experiences in China today. According to the director, the narrative metaphorically pertains to the classic theme of ‘loss’ and ‘fleeting opportunities’ (Li, 2023), which, we suggest, signifies the loss of oneself. The animation’s Chinese title comprises three characters, namely 鹅鹅鹅e e e ‘goose goose goose’, and each of these characters contains another character 我 wo ‘I’, indicating that ‘I’ is the focal point of this narrative. The pedlar is said to have lost three geese and hence three characters 鹅鹅鹅e e e, which we posit aligns with the episode’s further use of visual metaphor through animal symbolism to depict contemporary Chinese people’s three types of self-loss. First, the pedlar, intimidated by the fox scholar, agrees to take him to Goose Mountain in the goose cage, representing vulnerable people’s loss of principles. Second, the pedlar’s consumption of wine offered by the fox scholar represents the loss of self-control when facing material temptations in a consumerist society. Lastly, the narrative captures the pedlar’s sensual desire that he fails to suppress, even though he knows that every monster, including the goose concubine he desires, is unfaithful; this implication can also be attested to in a contemporary context. This ambiguity of the narrative, where judgement is withheld and endless possibilities for interpretation are created, is a prominent feature of animal symbolism in zhiguai novellas from the Southern and Northern Dynasties. ‘Goose’ maintains this trait, with the scriptwriter refraining from imposing subjective judgements and leaving the imaginative space open to the contemporary viewership. Therefore, some may interpret a cautionary tale about losing oneself in the pursuit of unrealistic desires and fantasies, symbolized by the goose concubine’s earring turning into a bird and disappearing into the boundless sky, whilst some may reflect on the human tendency to overlook those who care for them, while desiring others, unaware that they may not be their true love.

Similarly, Director Hu Rui exhibits a clear dedication to modernizing the complexities of the traditional ‘Scholar’ novella. This is again achieved through the visual metaphor of animal symbolism, presenting it in a format that a contemporary audience can identify with. To achieve this, a significant addition from the original narrative to the animated episode is the emotional interaction between the pedlar and the goose concubine. In this exchange, the Director Hu Rui includes a moment of profound impact. The goose concubine captivates the pedlar, but when she asks if he is willing to take her away, the pedlar hesitates, influenced by a phenomenon hinting at another love in his heart. Before he decides, the fox scholar wakes up, which then wakes up the pig and everything vanishes in an instant, leaving the pedlar bewildered. In a moment of reverie, he questions whether the events were real, or a dream induced by alcohol. ‘Goose’ creates an artful effect of ambiguity with its illusion within illusion structure, portraying each transformation as a secret of the heart, struggling in a dilemma of fantasy begetting fantasy. In the end, when the pedlar sees the earring left by the goose concubine, it transforms into millions of flying geese, dispersing among towering mountains. For the pedlar, everything presented to him throughout ‘Goose’ is within his grasp but dissipates with the shattering of illusion. Besides his original two geese, he loses a third goose, representing himself. When he shoulders the empty goose cage again, it symbolizes the nothingness of endless hope, and the vitality of life sets off again with a heart of emptiness and tranquillity. These fleeting moments throughout ‘Goose’ incorporate the emotional experiences often encountered by contemporary individuals. Consequently, ‘Goose’ not only utilizes visual metaphor through traditional zhiguai animal symbolism but also imbues them with contemporary values, innovatively reinterpreting this ancient ‘Scholar’ novella. The regret over a missed opportunity throughout ‘Goose’ metaphorically signifies that contemporary Chinese culture has entered an era where individuals now have more choices, and an overwhelming freedom of choice can lead to a state of severe disarray in their life experiences – a condition Kierkegaard termed ‘dizziness caused by freedom’ (Slater, 2019).

While this engaging adaptation therefore broadens the appeal of the original narrative, it also must render it less ‘traditional’ through the use of visual metaphor to formulate a more contemporary depiction of the moral crises faced by some of its characters. In stark contrast to the emotionally complex pedlar in ‘Goose’, the titular protagonist in the original ‘Scholar’ novella is merely a bystander, witnessing the entire process without participation or interference. We posit that this feature aligns with the ancient Chinese philosophy of 玄学 xuanxue (lit. ‘learning in the profound/mysterious/abstruse; dark learning’), a prevalent philosophy during the Six Dynasties when the ‘Scholar’ novella was written. Xuanxue thinkers seek to synthesize the proactive self-cultivation of moral virtues from Confucianism with the effortless, purposeless practices of Zhuangzi’s Daoist characters, thus unravelling the concept of 道 Tao (the Way) (Sellman, 2020). Through the use of visual metaphor, ‘Goose’ offers a reinterpretation of the central xuanxue tenet found in ‘Scholar’. This reinterpretation is characterized by the incorporation of traditional zhiguai thematic elements, using animal symbols to reinforce its narrative. Notably, the visual metaphor is crafted within a moral framework reflective of contemporary Chinese society, marked by worldly pursuits and a sense of confusion. This reinterpretation makes the thematic elements of ‘Scholar’ identifiable for today’s audience, providing a bridge between the traditional and the present.

Conclusion and future directions

In conclusion, ‘Goose’ stands as a compelling amalgamation of the zhiguai tradition and contemporary animation innovation. Employing a strategic interplay between visual metonymy and metaphor, director Hu Rui orchestrates a nuanced visual narrative that transcends the original ‘Scholar’ text for a contemporary audience while intricately intertwining with the complex tapestry of Chinese cultural heritage.

The visual metamorphosis of characters into animal forms serves as a deliberate form of visual metonymy, effectively transcoding the ‘Scholar’ novella onto the canvas of contemporary animation while maintaining a nuanced connection to traditional zhiguai symbolism highlighting the enduring cultural presence of these supernatural beings in Chinese traditions and alluding to their importance for the broader thematic intricacies of the zhiguai tradition today. Additionally, Hu Rui’s commitment to seamlessly integrating traditional Chinese painting techniques into contemporary animation not only showcases artistic prowess but also underscores a dedication to preserving and reimagining the aesthetics of traditional Chinese culture. The 2D ‘ink wash’ effect serves as a visual testament to the enduring spirit of Chinese ink-painting animation, embodying the ‘minzu/national style’ through intentional blank spaces and a language of absence, whilst drawing on the traditional ethereal elements of the zhiguai tradition to resonate with the anxieties of a contemporary audience.

Furthermore, Hu Rui employs visual metaphor to navigate the intricate labyrinth of contemporary human experiences. The recurring theme of loss, intricately communicated through the pedlar’s journey and his interactions with the animal figures, echoes the complex choices and challenges faced by individuals in the contemporary era. ‘Goose’ emerges as a reflective mirror, offering insights into the struggles of contemporary life – a visual narrative that resonates with the timeless echoes of zhiguai tales.

On the whole, ‘Goose’ transcends a mere adaptation, evolving into a cultural bridge spanning across centuries. As the earring transforms into a flock of geese and soars into the boundless sky in ‘Goose’, this animated episode likewise encapsulates the dynamic evolution of Chinese culture, where tradition gracefully integrates with the realms of contemporaneity. To achieve this, ‘Goose’ extends an invitation to its audience to engage in a visually enriching experience through the use of visual rhetoric – one that revitalizes the ancient echoes of zhiguai while shaping a new narrative. As such, ‘Goose’ symbolizes the ongoing dialogue between tradition and innovation in contemporary Chinese animation, hallmarks of the evolving canvas of its ‘minzu/national style’. This is also relevant to recent discussions on ‘Yao-Chinese Folktales’ as an ‘acclaimed revival effort of the Chinese school of animation . . . featuring rich elements of Chinese culture’ (Wei, 2023) and ‘sticking to the “Chinese Animation School”, inheriting traditional culture, and exploring the Chinese style’ (STVF, 2023). Interpreting the Chinese School of Animation in this context, to borrow from Huang’s (2022) recent discussion, appears somewhat reductive. ‘Goose’ should be viewed as a production that adheres to the minzu style, but not one that is strictly associated only with cultural heritage and the enhancement of cultural confidence. ‘Goose’ significantly influences scholarly explorations of contemporary Chinese animation that extend beyond drawing from China’s traditional past, prompting questions about how such productions shape the present. The findings of this study thus hold implications for future analyses of domestic animated productions, emphasizing the need for a thoughtful approach in reshaping the ‘Chinese School’ today. Instead of passively extracting traditional cultural elements, future animated productions, such as ‘Goose’, should focus on fostering creative expression and a positive continuation of traditional Chinese culture that appeals to the contemporary Chinese context, employing innovative methods such as visual rhetoric. This suggests that examinations of Chinese animated works should not only consider the incorporation of traditional elements but also explore how these elements contribute positively to the evolving cultural landscape of contemporary China.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and publication of this article.

Funding

This research was funded by the National High-End Foreign Expert Project (外国青年人才计划). Project Name: Promoting Chinese Films Internationally (让中国电影 “走出去”). Project Number: QN2023018002L.

Author biographies

Aiqing Wang is a Senior Lecturer in Chinese Studies at the Department of Languages, Cultures and Film, University of Liverpool. Her PhD project investigated Late Archaic Chinese syntax. Apart from historical and modern Chinese linguistics, her ongoing research interest also includes classical and contemporary literature and cultural studies. She is particularly interested in danmei subculture, fandom and online fiction. Address: Department of Languages, Cultures and Film, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK. Email: Aiqing.Wang@liverpool.ac.uk

Thomas William Whyke is currently an Assistant Professor in Culture and Media Studies at the University of Nottingham Ningbo China. His research has appeared in journals such as animation: an interdisciplinary journal, Journal of Homosexuality, Sexuality and Culture, Society & Animals, Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, Journal of Chinese Humanities, Global Media and China, Feminist Media Studies, Asian Studies and Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. His new book was published with Palgrave Macmillan in 2023.

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