Abstract
This paper presents an empirical corpus-based study on the identity of left-behind children in China, employing the discourse-historical approach (DHA) framework. It is the first study to combine Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling and reported speech analysis to examine how China Daily constructs the identity of left-behind children and explore the cultural and rhetorical factors influencing this identity construction. By integrating computational techniques and qualitative analysis methods, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the intricate nature of identity construction for left-behind children. This interdisciplinary approach strengthens the theoretical foundations of media analysis and offers fresh insights into the dynamics of media discourse. The findings reveal that China Daily portrays left-behind children in a multifaceted and diverse manner, encompassing both positive and negative aspects, while placing emphasis on their vulnerability and passivity. Furthermore, the media employs communication techniques such as identification by sympathy, antithesis, and inaccuracy to establish emotional resonance and foster audience identification, ultimately influencing the audience’s perspectives on these children.
Keywords
Introduction
Left-behind children (LBC) are minors below the age of 18 whose parents, either one or both, leave their homes for a minimum of 6 months per year to pursue employment opportunities (Qiu et al., 2023). The ‘Reform and Opening-up’ policy, along with subsequent modernization and urbanization in China, has resulted in a considerable disparity in living conditions between rural and urban regions. Many rural workers have migrated to cities in pursuit of better job prospects (Pannell, 2002). However, due to challenges associated with the household registration system, such as housing, education, and healthcare, it can be difficult for their children to accompany them (Han and Xu, 2022). Consequently, a significant number of children are left behind in rural China. As of 2022, there were around 9.02 million left-behind children in rural China (Zhang, 2023). The prolonged separation from parents may disrupt the attachment between parents and children, leading to a lack of supervision and education, thus significantly impacting the emotional development, interpersonal communication, and academic performance of these children. This situation often results in multidimensional social maladjustment (Peng and Dai, 2023).
The mass media is essential for spreading information and influencing public perception and understanding of left-behind children (Grasso et al., 2020). While the phenomenon of left-behind children emerged in China as early as the mid-1990s, it was not until recent years that the Chinese government began acknowledging and addressing the needs of this vulnerable group, resulting in increased attention from the media and academic circles (Jiang, 2011). When covering left-behind children and related events, the media typically focus on certain aspects that form the core of their news coverage and contribute to the construction of the left-behind children’s identity. Such identity portrayal significantly influences public perception and has far-reaching implications for policy-making and social intervention (Huang and Zou, 2023). Therefore, it is imperative to examine how the media constructs the identity of left-behind children in China to promote a thorough understanding and garner support for this population.
Previous research has primarily focused on how media outlets in China, particularly those targeting domestic readership, such as The Paper, shape the identity of left-behind children within the country (Huang and Zou, 2023). However, there is a research gap when it comes to exploring the role of Chinese English-language media, which has the potential to influence the international community’s perception and understanding of China. China Daily, recognized as the most influential English-language media outlet in China, is under the ownership of the Central Propaganda Department of the Chinese Communist Party (Pei et al., 2022). Distinguishing itself from Chinese-language newspapers, China Daily specifically caters to a discerning readership comprising global decision-makers, experts, scholars, and business leaders. It has emerged as a vital medium for China’s international propaganda efforts. Serving as an influential gateway for the world to gain insights into China, China Daily assumes a distinctive role in showcasing China’s image and conveying the perspectives of the Chinese government to the international community. Therefore, this study adopts the discourse-historical approach (DHA) framework to investigate how China Daily constructs the identity of left-behind children and the factors that influence this construction. The objective is to bridge the existing research gap by analyzing how the Chinese government presents social issues related to left-behind children to the international community through Chinese English-language media.
Literature review
Identity construction of left-behind children in news discourse
Research in fields such as anthropology, linguistics, sociology, and psychology has firmly established and recognized the crucial role of language strategies and discursive processes in the construction and negotiation of identities (De Fina et al., 2011). This implies that identity is not a static and fixed concept but rather a socially constructed phenomenon that is shaped, maintained, and negotiated through discourse and communication. Media hold significant power in shaping public opinion. The depiction of individuals, groups, as well as cultural and societal norms in media discourse can have an impact on social and personal identities (Qazi and Shah, 2018). In particular, the quantity and quality of media coverage on vulnerable groups provide valuable insights into how these groups are perceived and their relative status compared to the majority (Saleem et al., 2021).
China has experienced a substantial influx of rural-to-urban migrants in recent decades, leading to a notable increase in the number of left-behind children (Wang et al., 2022). Extensive research has examined the effects of prolonged separation from parents on left-behind children and found that such separation can disrupt parent-child attachments (Zhang and Deng, 2022), result in a lack of supervision and education (Sun et al., 2015), and severely impact emotional development (Shi et al., 2021), interpersonal relationships (Zhao et al., 2022), and academic performance of these children (Bai et al., 2018). Ultimately, these effects contribute to multidimensional social maladjustment among left-behind children (Peng and Dai, 2023). Furthermore, recent research has examined this group’s delinquent and deviant behaviors (Chen, 2021). Concurrently, the news media in China have extensively reported on delinquency involving left-behind children, depicting them as vulnerable and deviant. The reporting of anecdotal and fragmented stories about left-behind children by the media can lead to public misconceptions and misinterpretations (Huang and Zou, 2023). However, there has been no previous systematic investigation into the media’s portrayal of left-behind children.
Considering that exposure to negative media portrayals can foster biases against the depicted social group members and result in negative behaviors towards that group (Saleem et al., 2021), it becomes crucial to examine the construction of left-behind children’s identity in influential media outlets. With a readership of over 350 million worldwide, China Daily holds significant international influence, and the identity it shapes for Chinese left-behind children may have a profound impact on how the international community perceives this group. Therefore, studying how China Daily constructs the identity of left-behind children is of great value. This investigation leads us to formulate the first research question (RQ1):
RQ1: What is the identity of left-behind children constructed by China Daily?
Identity construction from cultural and rhetorical perspectives
Cultural identity is intricately tied to dominant discourses and power dynamics. In this highly mediated world, the agenda-setting function of mass media, including the way it frames events, serves as a symbolic resource for strengthening and constructing identities (Marôpo, 2014). Media often present a dominant identity pattern as a holistic and fundamental quality of life. Under the influence of power dynamics, media repeatedly convey specific cultural norms, values, and symbols to establish commonality and community. Media actively engage in the daily construction of Us and Others, while also reinforcing and disseminating these identities to both members and non-members of a group (Georgiou, 2010).
The rhetorical perspective on identity construction posits that identity is constructed in and through discourse (Bamberg et al., 2011). The rhetorical analysis of identity construction highlights three crucial aspects. Firstly, the selection of discourse is strategic. Different language styles, vocabulary, and expressions can be used strategically to challenge and reshape identity. Secondly, the rhetorical perspective is evaluative and normative, highlighting how the selection of discourse can establish people’s identities as either appropriate or problematic. Lastly, the rhetorical perspective encompasses phronesis, focusing on addressing issues and dilemmas in social life (Tracy and Robles, 2013). The choices and presentation of discourse in the media have the power to both reinforce specific identity traits, fostering consensus and recognition within society, and perpetuate existing biases and prejudices, constructing unjust or negative identities for certain groups.
Both the cultural and rhetorical perspectives play critical roles in the study of identity construction, offering complementary insights and contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of this complex process (Tracy and Robles, 2013). An exclusive focus on either perspective risks overlooking important aspects of the communication process. By examining identity through the lenses of culture and rhetoric, researchers can develop a more sophisticated knowledge of how identity is constructed, negotiated, and expressed (Orbe, 2016). This holistic perspective highlights the dynamic nature of identity and acknowledges the influential role of language and discourse in shaping both individual and collective identities. Investigating the impact of culture and rhetoric on identity construction provides valuable insights into power dynamics, social inequalities, and cultural influences that shape the formation and expression of identity (Tracy and Robles, 2013). Hence, we propose the second research question (RQ2) from the combined perspective of culture and rhetoric:
RQ2: How do cultural and rhetorical factors influence the construction of left-behind children’s identity in China Daily?
Theoretical framework
This study employs discourse-historical approach (DHA) to examine the identity construction of left-behind children in China Daily. DHA was initially developed by Ruth Wodak, a prominent figure in critical discourse analysis, during the analysis of anti-Semitic discourse in the 1986 Austrian presidential campaign (Wodak, 1990). DHA considers history as a resource in the process of discourse interpretation, integrates social and political backgrounds in the analysis, and explores the influence of historical resources on underlying power dynamics and degrees (Wodak, 2009). DHA is a three-dimensional framework: firstly, identifying the specific contents or topics of a specific discourse; secondly, studying discourse strategies; and then examining linguistic means and analyzing specific, context-dependent language realizations (Wodak, 2015: 12). Discursive strategies include nomination, predication, argumentation, perspectivization, and intensification or mitigation strategies. The analysis of perspectivization strategies primarily focuses on the analysis of reported speech, aiming to locate the author’s viewpoint and detect authorial intervention or alienation (Reisigl and Wodak, 2009). This strategy is frequently employed in news reporting.
Previous studies have utilized DHA to explore how mass media construct and present the identities of vulnerable groups, including ethnic minorities, gender minorities, socio-economically disadvantaged groups, and people with disabilities, uncovering potential biases and unequal treatment in the media’s construction of identity (Boukala, 2016; Nartey, 2022). DHA has proven to be a valuable tool for examining identity construction in news discourse (Reisigl, 2017). However, most of the existing research has focused on the construction of identities of vulnerable groups in Western media, with a lack of in-depth analysis regarding the Chinese media, particularly concerning the specific case of left-behind children as a vulnerable group.
One notable characteristic of DHA is its interdisciplinary nature, particularly its problem-oriented interests (Wodak, 2015). Wodak argues that different theories and methods can be integrated as long as they contribute to a comprehensive understanding and interpretation of the research object. In this study, we enrich DHA by integrating the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling approach (Blei et al., 2003) and corpus-based methods (Baker, 2023), and apply them to the study of media construction of the identity of left-behind children. LDA topic modeling is a powerful technique widely used in various fields, including news discourse analysis (Andrich and Domahidi, 2023). This approach allows researchers to uncover hidden thematic patterns in news article corpora and gain insights into underlying themes and their distributions. Therefore, we employ LDA topic modeling to analyze how the identity of left-behind children is constructed through different themes. Additionally, we utilize the corpus retrieval and analysis software AntConc 4.2.4 to analyze the reporting verbs, content, and information sources in reports on left-behind children in China Daily, investigating how the media construct the identity of these children through perspectivization strategies. Furthermore, we draw upon the cultural and rhetorical perspectives (Tracy and Robles, 2013) to elucidate the interaction between identity, language, and culture, thereby contributing to a deeper understanding of the complexity and diversity of identity construction. These perspectives provide a more nuanced conceptual framework for analyzing identity construction in news discourse.
Methodology
Data collection
In this study, we constructed a research corpus specifically centered on the reports of left-behind children in China Daily. Since its establishment in 1981, China Daily has developed into a leading English newspaper in China, attracting a substantial readership of over 350 million worldwide through print, online, and mobile platforms. To collect relevant data, we used the search term “left-behind children” in the LexisNexis database and retrieved all the news reports concerning left-behind children in China Daily. After carefully screening out irrelevant news reports, we compiled a research corpus specifically focusing on China Daily’s news coverage of left-behind children in China. The corpus consists of 537 news articles published between January 11, 2013, and September 26, 2023. We chose this time period as it represents the entirety of available news reports on left-behind children accessible during our data collection in October 2023.
Analytical procedures
LDA topic modeling
LDA is a form of topic modeling that aims to automatically identify meaningful topics within a text corpus. It utilizes the co-occurrence of words to extract these topics (von Nordheim et al., 2018). In this study, we employed LDA topic modeling to uncover the underlying themes in the source articles. While the terms ‘topics’ and ‘themes’ are sometimes used interchangeably, we differentiate them in our research. In our study, ‘topics’ are specific subjects or issues discussed in the news reports identified using LDA topic modeling. On the other hand, we use ‘themes’ to refer to the broader conceptual categories that encompass these potential topics. By using LDA topic modeling, our objective was to identify the themes to reveal the deep structure and distribution of topics within the corpus, ultimately shedding light on the identities of left-behind children constructed through different themes.
First, we used the ‘tm’ package in the R programming language for text preprocessing. Every word in the collected full-text news articles was converted to lowercase and punctuation marks, numbers, and stop words were removed (Andrich and Domahidi, 2023). Second, we used LDA to extract topics. Before initiating the topic extraction process, it was necessary to determine the number of topics to be extracted (Brookes and McEnery, 2019). According to the suggestion by Roberts et al. (2018), for smaller datasets, a range of 5–50 topics could be selected, while for larger datasets, 60–100 topics could be considered (Rouhana, 2023). In this study, we set the topic range from 5 to 50 and used LDA and Gibbs sampling to calculate the harmonic mean of the topic model under different numbers of topics to determine the optimal number of topics (Tirunillai and Tellis, 2014). The harmonic mean is an indicator used to evaluate the fit of topic models, with higher values suggesting better choices for the number of topics. By plotting the relationship between the number of topics and the harmonic mean, we observed that the harmonic mean reached its peak when the number of topics was set to 15 (see Figure 1). Hence, we selected 15 topics as the optimal number. In Table 1, we present the results of 15 potential topics and provide three representative keywords for each topic.
Harmonic mean.
Potential topics.
Third, we proceeded to evaluate the quality of the topics and determine the final set of topics. LDA allows for topic overlap, meaning that each document contained in one potential topic may also be present in other topics (Rouhana, 2023). To assess the quality of the topic extraction results, we inputted the results of the LDA topic modeling into the tidyverse visualization package in the R programming language, generating a heatmap visualization of the topics (see Figure 2). By examining the color patterns in the heatmap visualization, we identified similarities between topics. If two topics exhibited similar word distributions in the heatmap visualization, it suggested that they might cover similar content. Conversely, if the word distributions of two topics were significantly different, they were likely to represent distinct topics (Marjanen et al., 2020). Through a two-step clustering process that took into account the meaning of the topic words in Table 1 and analyzed the overall distribution of each topic in the heatmap visualization, we identified four prominent themes: family and child development, education and school environment, social and child issues, and policy and social support.
Topic clustering heatmap visualization.
The analysis of reported speech
The analysis of perspectivization strategies primarily centers on the analysis of reported speech, with the goal of identifying the author’s perspective and identifying instances of authorial intervention or distancing (Reisigl and Wodak, 2009). Reporting verbs are vital in conveying the words and opinions of others, serving as a fundamental element in the context of reported speech (Li et al., 2023). According to Thompson (1996), the choice of reporting verbs not only reflects the media’s perception of the authenticity of the reported information but also reveals their attitude towards the speaker. Thompson further classified reporting verbs into three categories: neutral, positive, and negative, based on their pragmatic functions (Thompson, 1996). Positive reporting verbs contribute to shaping a positive image of the discourse source, characterized by rationality, thoroughness, fairness, and trustworthiness. In contrast, negative reporting verbs undermine the image of the discourse source, portraying them as arrogant, arbitrary, volatile, and irrational. Neutral reporting verbs are devoid of any emotional connotation and serve solely to convey the discourse (Kang and Li, 2018: 26). In line with Thompson’s classification, we categorized the reporting verbs into three groups: neutral reporting verbs, positive reporting verbs, and negative reporting verbs, and calculated the frequency of these reporting verbs using AntConc 4.2.4.
Moreover, the type of information sources can influence people’s attitudes towards minority groups in society (Jacobs et al., 2017). In this study, the information sources in the corpus were encoded and classified. Specifically, we first used AntConc 4.2.4 to extract the sentences containing reporting verbs and carefully examined the information sources of these sentences. Subsequently, two experienced researchers independently performed manual encoding of the information sources, resulting in a remarkable coding consistency of 98.7%. Any inconsistencies in coding were resolved through collaborative discussions, leading to the final classification of information sources into six categories: experts and scholars, members of companies and organizations, government officials, public, left-behind children, and others. The “others” category includes various sources, such as unknown sources (e.g., some), surveys (e.g., a survey conducted several years ago), documents (e.g., a guidance document), and notices (e.g., a notice published on specific dates).
Cultural and rhetorical perspectives of identity construction
Cultural perspective emphasizes the role of cultural systems and social structures in shaping discourse practice and identity construction, while rhetorical perspective focuses on the role of discourse practice in constructing and communicating identity (Tracy and Robles, 2013). This study first explored the interplay between dominant discourses and power dynamics underlying the construction of left-behind children’s identities in China Daily. Then, from a rhetorical standpoint, we analyzed the strategies employed by the media to influence audience attitudes and establish connections between constructed identities and the audience.
Kenneth Burke, the founder and pioneer of new rhetoric, argues that the basic function of rhetoric is the use of words by individuals to shape attitudes or elicit actions in others. Classical rhetoric emphasizes persuasive techniques and deliberate design, while new rhetoric focuses on identification. Identification refers to the functions of language in identifying, persuading, and inducing emotions, values, and actions. Burke’s theory of identification and its three strategies – identification by sympathy, antithesis, and inaccuracy – are significant developments in new rhetoric. Identification by sympathy emphasizes common ground with others to establish a rapport, while identification by antithesis highlights a common opposition to an idea or a distinct group. On the other hand, identification by inaccuracy refers to influencing the audience through unconscious identification (Burke, 2015). These strategies assist the media in exerting influence when constructing identities and establishing connections with the audience. Given the mission of China Daily to showcase China’s image to the international community, this paper conducted a thorough analysis of the constructed identities of left-behind children by China Daily, based on Burke’s theory of identification.
Findings and discussion
Theme and identity construction
The results of LDA topic modeling are presented in Table 2. We identified four main themes, with each theme comprising potential topics and their corresponding ten keywords.
LDA topic modeling results.
Family and child development
In the theme of family and child development, there are three distinct topics: family relationships, family circumstances, and the positive expectations of left-behind children regarding their future lives. Example 1 serves as an illustration, showcasing that many left-behind children reside with their grandparents and affectionately address the elderly gentleman named Song as ‘Grandpa’, reflecting the close bond they have formed with their grandparents. However, this example also highlights the absence of parental care and emotional connection resulting from the migration of the parents (Huang and Zou, 2023). Numerous families with left-behind children face poverty, struggling with insufficient economic support and basic living conditions, as exemplified in Example 2.
Example 1: With their parents working as migrant workers in cities,
Example 2: After my first visit to Cun’s house, she called and told me that her younger brother wanted to go to kindergarten, but
Example 3 provides a poignant illustration, where a left-behind child expresses his dream of living in a spacious house with his family and leading a happy and healthy life. This dream showcases the deep importance of family bonds to left-behind children and their yearning for a future characterized by stability, contentment, and physical well-being. By emphasizing their positive expectations, we can discern the innate optimism that left-behind children possess. Despite the challenges they face, they maintain hope and envision a better future for themselves and their loved ones (Cao et al., 2022).
Example 3: My
The three topics within the theme of family and child development are intricately linked to the identity of left-behind children. By examining the family relationships and dynamics that surround these children, we witness the emergence of a complex and contradictory image. Left-behind children are a group of children who face challenges but maintain hope. On the one hand, left-behind children are a disadvantaged group who lack parental companionship and economic support. On the other hand, left-behind children are individuals who aspire to a happy life and maintain an optimistic outlook. The positive expectations and optimistic spirit of left-behind children serve as a source of strength for them in the face of challenges (Liu et al., 2023).
Education and school environment
The theme of education and school environment involves the right to education and the learning environment of left-behind children. Left-behind children may face challenges in accessing quality education (Lu, 2014). Example 4 highlights the Chinese government’s efforts to improve the education of left-behind children and shape them as beneficiaries of these efforts. Moreover, this positive narrative helps to raise awareness and garner support from all sectors of society for the education of left-behind children.
Example 4: Local governments, including the one in Jingyang county, Xianyang, have listed education as an important tool to eradicate poverty, and
Social and child issues
The theme of social and child issues encompasses four main topics: migrant parents, left-behind children’s delinquent tendencies, mobile phone addiction, and mental problems. The rapid industrialization and urbanization in China have led to a growing number of people from rural areas moving to cities in pursuit of employment opportunities (Seeborg et al., 2000). This phenomenon has garnered significant media attention, focusing on the various challenges faced by migrant workers during the process of employment and integration into urban life. Among these challenges, the problems experienced by migrant workers’ children, such as ‘mobile phone addiction’ and a propensity for delinquent behaviors, have received extensive media coverage.
In the era of new media, left-behind children who lack family constraints are more susceptible to negative influences from the internet, and are addicted to online games, adversely affecting their academic performance and personal value formation, as illustrated in Example 5. In addition, left-behind children are inclined to participate in delinquent activities and experience a range of psychological issues, including feelings of vulnerability, inferiority, arrogance, loneliness, and rebelliousness, as illustrated in Examples 6 and 7. By linking the theme of social and child issues with the identity of left-behind children, China Daily has portrayed them as individuals who lack family constraints, are susceptible to online addiction, and have a higher tendency towards delinquent behaviors and psychological issues.
Example 5:
Example 6: More than 2,000 left-behind children in rural areas have been involved in cases of
Example 7: The absence of parents during a child’s growth years is believed to have resulted in
Policy and social support
The theme of policy and social support encompasses topics at three levels: policy, economy, and society. At the policy level, the Chinese government has formulated policies and implemented programs to address the challenges faced by left-behind children (Chang et al., 2019: 3). The media highlights the government’s efforts in this regard, reporting on the development and implementation of these policies and programs. At the economic level, the media frequently covers financial assistance provided by the Chinese government, social organizations, and individuals to support left-behind children. This assistance includes subsidies for their tuition fees and the provision of living allowances or subsidies, as illustrated in Example 8. At the societal level, the media reports on various aid projects and volunteer activities carried out by the community, such as psychological counseling, educational assistance, life guidance, and social activities, aimed at providing support and care for left-behind children. An example of such initiatives can be seen in Example 9, where more than 40 volunteers are mentioned to ensure the safety of the children and assist them with their studies. By consistently reporting on these policies, economic support, and social initiatives, the media portrays left-behind children as a vulnerable group in need of assistance from the government and society. This serves to raise awareness, foster empathy, and encourage collective efforts to improve the well-being and future prospects of left-behind children.
Example 8: Chen and his wife decided they would help left-behind children have a better chance in life by
Example 9: Lu said there are more than 40 volunteers who take turns with the children to
Through examining the role of thematic choices in shaping the identity of left-behind children in China Daily, we found that the media associates the thematic narrative with the identity of left-behind children and constructs a complex and contradictory image of them. On one hand, left-behind children are portrayed as a vulnerable group lacking family constraints, being immersed in the online world, and having a propensity for delinquent behaviors, thus requiring support from the government and society. On the other hand, they are depicted as independent, resilient individuals who value family relationships and possess positive values. As highlighted in the theme of family and child development, despite facing numerous challenges, these children demonstrate resilience by maintaining hope and striving for a brighter future for themselves and their families. Furthermore, the absence of their parents has fostered greater independence among left-behind children, leading them to take autonomous actions both at home and in school (Liu et al., 2023). By presenting these contradictory images, the media showcased the diversity and complexity of the identity of left-behind children and avoided reducing them to a single stereotype. This reporting approach enables a more comprehensive understanding of the real situations faced by left-behind children and allows readers to develop a better appreciation of their circumstances.
Reported speech and identity construction
Reporting verbs
Table 3 shows that among the reporting verbs, neutral reporting verbs occur a total of 2485 times, with the highest frequencies attributed to the verbs ‘say’ (64)/‘said’ (2055) and ‘tell’ (45)/‘told’ (101). Positive reporting verbs occur 369 times, with the highest frequency being ‘hope’ (109), followed by ‘believe’ (82), ‘suggest’ (34), ‘announce’ (34), ‘propose’ (19), ‘explain’ (19), ‘confirm’ (18), ‘emphasize’ (15), ‘appeal’ (12), ‘convince’ (4), and ‘reiterate’ (3). Negative reporting verbs occur 34 times, with the highest frequency being ‘accuse’ (15), followed by ‘blame’ (8), ‘criticize’ (5), ‘warn’ (5), and ‘complain’ (1).
Classification of the reporting verbs.
Analyzing the KWIC (keyword in context) concordance lines obtained using AntConc 4.2.4, it becomes evident that neutral reporting verbs are predominantly used to convey the statements of government officials, organizational members, and migrant parents, highlighting their responsibility towards the well-being of these children (Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000). For instance, Example 10 quoted the words of former Premier Li Keqiang, emphasizing the government’s commitment to implementing a policy that enables compulsory education for the children of migrant workers in their respective places of residence, thereby effectively addressing the educational challenges these children face. Furthermore, the predominance of neutral reporting verbs suggests that China Daily tends to adopt a neutral stance when reporting events related to left-behind children, refraining from expressing personal attitudes (Floyd Moore, 2000: 45).
Example 10:
Positive reporting verbs used by China Daily include mental verbs ‘believe’ and ‘hope’, which are predominantly used to report the statements of migrant parents and government officials. Example 11 employs the mental verb ‘believe’ to underscore the confidence of migrant parents in working in urban areas to boost their income and improve their children’s living conditions. Moreover, the material verbs ‘increase’, ‘help’ and ‘build’ further elucidate the motivations behind their departure from their hometowns and pursuit of urban employment, accentuating the resilient spirit and unwavering determination of migrant parents in ensuring a more promising future for their children. Example 12 reports the discourse of the local government, emphasizing the government’s efforts in addressing the needs of left-behind children and underscoring the sense of loneliness experienced by these children.
Example 11: Many rural parents
Example 12: Local government
Positive reporting verbs, such as ‘suggest’, ‘announce’ and ‘appeal’, are predominantly employed to report the statements of government officials and experts. For instance, Example 13 reports the suggestion put forth by Lijun Chen, a researcher at the University of Chicago. By utilizing the modal verb ‘should’ and the preposition ‘to’, Example 13 indicates that left-behind children are a vulnerable group by emphasizing the need for the Chinese government to establish an integrated system of child services and protection. China Daily incorporates the positions of government officials and experts through indirect quotations, providing suggestions and recommendations concerning matters related to left-behind children, classifying them as part of the collective ‘us’ on a cognitive level and constructs an ‘in-group’ identity for them.
Example 13: Chen
Negative reporting verbs such as ‘accuse’, ‘blame’ and ‘complain’ are less frequently used by China Daily, with a total of 34 occurrences. Through the utilization of these negative reporting verbs, journalists denounce delinquent activities associated with left-behind children and construct a negative identity of left-behind children that may cause social harm. Example 14 exemplifies the use of a negative reporting verb, ‘blamed’, which expresses blaming or accusing migrant parents for leaving their children behind. This usage attempts to attribute the issue of left-behind children to the absence of parental presence (Huang and Zou, 2023).
Example 14: Some
Information sources
Table 4 demonstrates the distribution of information sources utilized by China Daily.
According to Table 4, experts and scholars account for the largest proportion, representing 32.64% of the total. These sources include experts and scholars in fields such as psychology, pedagogy, and sociology, indicating that China Daily prioritizes the voices of experts and scholars. Members of companies and organizations represent 23.85% of the total. This category includes individuals from the Women’s Federation, Winnovator Group Inc., Copenhagen Institute of Interaction Design, Guangzhou Kugou Computer Technology, the editorial board of China Daily, etc. Government officials account for 19.61% of the total, including education officers at UNICEF China, officials from county education bureau, secretaries of the China Foundation for Poverty Alleviation, and representatives from China’s Ministry of Civil Affairs.
The distribution of information sources.
Information sources from experts and scholars, members of companies and organizations, and government officials together comprise 76.1% of the total. Among these sources, we found that 85% are explicitly identified with detailed information such as names and positions mentioned in the news, highlighting the credibility of the reported speech. By citing respected leaders, experts, and trusted contacts who had previously provided insightful comments and including specific details about them, journalists are able to draw upon the credibility of these sources, thereby enhancing the trustworthiness and overall quality of the news stories (Benson and Wood, 2015). The quotations predominantly employ indirect speech to convey the concerns of the government, experts and scholars, as well as members of companies and organizations regarding left-behind children. This approach seamlessly integrates the perspectives of government officials, experts and scholars, and company and organization members with that of the media. The alignment between the media’s perspective and those of the quoted individuals allows the media to portray the left-behind children from the standpoint of government officials, experts and scholars, and company and organization members, thereby constructing the passive and vulnerable identities of left-behind children.
The voices of various social actors in the news media have a notable impact on prompting readers to critically analyze the existing ideological, political, and social power dynamics. The media possess the power to select the issues to address and whose voices to amplify for their audience (Austermühl, 2014: 29). However, when examining the information sources quoted in China Daily’s coverage, it becomes evident that the voices of the public and left-behind children are given less prominence, accounting for only 13.45 and 9.09% of the total, respectively. This suggests that China Daily tends to prioritize the perspectives of government officials, members of companies and organizations, and experts and scholars while neglecting the voices of the public and left-behind children, potentially resulting in incomplete information and bias. Furthermore, other sources account for the smallest proportion, representing only 1.37% of the total.
Cultural and rhetorical perspectives of identity construction
By examining the themes and reported speech in China Daily’s coverage of left-behind children, we have uncovered the diverse identities that the media constructs for these children. Firstly, the themes of family and child development, education and school environment, policy and social support, in conjunction with neutral reporting verbs and information sources, collectively portray left-behind children as a vulnerable group lacking parental companionship and economic support, requiring assistance from the government and society. Secondly, the theme of family and child development, along with positive reporting verbs, depicts left-behind children as independent, resilient, and imbued with positive values, demonstrating their proactive nature in pursuing a brighter future for themselves and their families. Lastly, the theme of social and child issues, accompanied by negative reporting verbs, shapes left-behind children as lacking familial constraints, being prone to internet addiction, and having higher tendencies towards delinquent behaviors and psychological problems. This intricate portrayal reflects the influence of culture and rhetoric, illustrating the diversity arising from multifaceted factors (Yuan, 2018).
Ideology, as a rhetorical motive, significantly influences the media’s perspective on left-behind children and the construction of their identity (Tracy and Robles, 2013). News discourse is not transparent or simplistic; rather, it involves the reinterpretation of events and power dynamics (Teo, 2000). The presentation of left-behind children’s identity in China Daily is complex and diverse, influenced by the choice of news media and various power entities. As an official English media outlet of the Chinese government, China Daily plays a crucial role in projecting China’s image and promoting the government’s perspectives to the international community. It has emerged as a vital conduit for communicating the country’s ideology to readers worldwide, aligning closely with the national discourse of China (Ye and Thomas, 2020).
The interaction between national discourse and media discourse significantly influences the presence and identity of left-behind children within their historical, social, and cultural context. At the macro level, the government assumes a pivotal role in formulating and implementing policies concerning left-behind children. Previous research has highlighted several political factors, including the household registration system, deviations in educational policies, and inadequate enforcement of policies and regulations, which contribute to the emergence of the issue of left-behind children (Fan et al., 2010; Hu et al., 2014; Wang and Zhao, 2023). Nonetheless, the Chinese government has demonstrated a steadfast commitment to addressing the challenges faced by left-behind children (Zhou et al., 2015). In recent years, the government has implemented a series of policies and measures aimed at providing care and support for these children, resulting in a mitigation of the issue of left-behind children in China. At the micro level, as an important platform for China’s external propaganda, China Daily emphasizes the Chinese government’s efforts in addressing the issue of left-behind children, portraying them as beneficiaries of government endeavors and a vulnerable group in need of care. Through reporting on these efforts, China Daily presents an image of a responsible and service-oriented government that is dedicated to improving the quality of life for vulnerable groups to the international community.
Furthermore, rhetoric is a discourse practice that employs various communication techniques to persuade individuals to adopt a specific viewpoint or agree with a particular stance (Van Dijk, 2009). China Daily’s reports on left-behind children serve as an exemplification of rhetorical practice. As the only Chinese newspaper with significant international exposure, influence, and recognition, China Daily holds a prominent position in introducing China to the world. In its coverage of left-behind children, China Daily employs thematic and perspectivization strategies to highlight the complex identities of these children. By eliciting identification by sympathy, antithesis, and inaccuracy, China Daily attempts to provide the international readership with a more comprehensive understanding of the issue of left-behind children in China.
Identification by sympathy is the process of evoking a sense of emotional connection and identification through the depiction of the challenges and struggles faced by individuals or groups (Burke, 2015). China Daily seeks to establish an emotional bond with the audience by highlighting the challenges faced by left-behind children, such as the lack of parental companionship and economic support. Through this portrayal, China Daily strives to encourage the audience to empathize with the plight of left-behind children and achieve identification by sympathy. Identification by antithesis involves appealing to shared opposition, such as enemies or challenging living conditions (Zhong, 2017: 69). There are individuals who harbor stereotypes about left-behind children, considering them as a problematic group and a destabilizing factor in society (Fan et al., 2010). Certain news reports construct negative identities for these children, emphasizing their lack of family constraints, experiences of loneliness, addiction to the online world, and potential delinquent tendencies. This allows China Daily to establish identification by antithesis with audiences who hold stereotypes about left-behind children, while also drawing attention to the various issues faced by this group.
Identification by inaccuracy refers to a form of identity formation that operates at an unconscious level. It is important for organizing and disseminating ideologies (Burke, 2015). China Daily’s coverage of left-behind children primarily employs neutral reported verbs to present information objectively. However, by selectively featuring government officials, experts, scholars, companies, and organizations as information sources, it strategically employs identification by inaccuracy to align the audience’s stance, viewpoints, and ideologies with the media’s agenda. Additionally, through the careful selection of themes and the use of positive or negative reporting verbs, the media discourse surrounding the identity of left-behind children incorporates ideological evaluations, thereby creating a discourse world that is inclined towards specific ideologies for the audience. Consequently, while reading the discourse, the audience may unconsciously accept the different identities of left-behind children portrayed by the media.
Conclusion
This study has examined how China Daily, a leading English newspaper in China, constructs the identity of left-behind children through various linguistic and rhetorical means. The findings demonstrate that China Daily portrays left-behind children with a multifaceted and diverse identity, encompassing both positive and negative aspects, and highlighting their vulnerability and passivity. The construction of their identity is influenced by macro power, represented by state power, as well as micro power, represented by discourse power (Wodak, 2012). By evoking identification by sympathy, antithesis, and inaccuracy, China Daily has provided the international readership with a more comprehensive understanding of the experiences and challenges faced by left-behind children in China.
This research provides valuable references and sources of inspiration for future studies in this field. Theoretically, by combining LDA topic modeling, corpus-based methods, as well as cultural and rhetorical perspectives, we have enriched the DHA framework, enhancing our understanding of the complex process of identity construction in news discourse. The applicability of this framework extends to diverse contexts and populations. In terms of practical implications, the investigation of the identities of left-behind children in China Daily offers insights into how the Chinese government presents social issues related to these children to the international community through Chinese English-language media. Moreover, the findings from this research contribute to the development of discourse strategies aimed at improving media coverage of this issue. By gaining a deeper understanding of the factors that influence the formation of left-behind children’s identities, media organizations can adopt more sensitive and empathetic approaches in their reporting. This improved media coverage may help raise awareness about the challenges these children face, promote the implementation of effective policies, and encourage support from various stakeholders, both within China and internationally.
It is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. The sample selection was limited to China Daily, which may restrict the comprehensive understanding of left-behind children’s identity construction. Future research could expand the sample to include a wider range of media sources for a more comprehensive perspective. Additionally, this study primarily focuses on the construction of identity and does not extensively explore how the audience perceives and interprets these identities. Future research could incorporate methods such as interviews and surveys to gain insights into the audience’s reception and response to media identity construction. Furthermore, this study did not analyze the long-term influence and changing trends of media discourse on the identities of left-behind children. A longitudinal research design could be adopted in future studies to track and analyze the evolving nature of media discourse regarding their identity construction.
Footnotes
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work is supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities [Project ID: SK2022156].