Patients with depression tend to have a higher rate of smoking and an increased severity of nicotine dependence. It seems that common genetic and environmental factors may influence the bimodal relationship between smoking and depression. Nicotine has some positive reinforcing/rewarding effects that may affect people with mood disorders and smoking is also used as a `relief medication' in order to ameliorate symptoms of depression, as it is already known that nicotine, which is the major psychoactive ingredient in tobacco, may act as an antidepressant. To date, the data regarding the difficulty in smoking cessation in depressed smokers are conflicting. Low confidence and self-esteem among this group of smokers are significant predictors of failure during smoking cessation attempt. In the most recently published guidelines for smokers with psychiatric comorbidities the suggestion is for combination treatment (counseling and pharmaceutical treatment) and prolongation of a therapeutic approach.
Albers, A.B. and Biener, L. (2002) The role of smoking and rebelliousness in the development of depressive symptoms and rebelliousness in the development of depressive symptoms among a cohort of Massachusetts adolescents, Prev Med34: 625-631.
2.
Baschangel, J.S. and Hawk Jr L.W. (2008) The effects of nicotine on the attentional modification of the acoustic startle response in nonsmokers, Psychopharmacology198: 93-101.
3.
Brown, R.A., Niaura, R., Lloyd-Richardson, E.E., Strong, D.R., Kahler, C.W., Abrantes, A.M. et al. (2007) Bupropion and cognitive-behavioral treatment for depression in smoking cessation, Nicotine Tob Res9: 721-730.
4.
Choi, W.S., Patten, C.A., Gillin, J.C., Kaplan, R.M. and Pierce, J.P. (1997) Cigarette smoking predicts development of depressive symptoms among US adolescents, Ann Behav Med19: 42-50.
5.
Colton, C.W. and Manderscheid, R.W. (2006) Congruencies in increased mortality rates, years of potential life lost, and causes of death among public mental health clients in eight states, Prev Chonic Dis3: 1-14.
6.
Covey, L.S., Bomback, A. and Yin Yan, G.W. (2006) History of depression and smoking cessation: A rejoinder, Nicotine Tob Res8: 315-319.
7.
Curry, S.J., Mermelstein, R.J. and Sporer, A.K.(2009) Therapy for specific problems: youth tobacco cessation, Annu Rev Psychol60: 229-255.
8.
Fergusson, D.M., Goodwin, R.D. and Horwood, L.J. (2003) Major depression and cigarette smoking: results of a 21-year longitudinal study, Psychol Med33: 1357-1367.
9.
Fiore, M.C., Jaen, C.R., Baker, T.B., Bailey, W.C., Benowitz, N.L., Curry, S.J. et al. Trating tobacco use and dependence: 2008 update. Rockville. MD: US Department of Health and Human Services , May 2008. Available at: http://www.ahrq.gov/path/tobacco.htm#Clinic
10.
Gehricke, J.G., Loughlin, S.E., Whalen, C.K., Potkin, S.G., Fallon, J.H., Jamner, L.D. et al. (2007) Smoking to self-medicate attentional and emotional dysfunctions, Nicotine Tob Res9(Suppl. 4): S523-536.
11.
Gelenberg, A.J., Leon, J., Evins, A.E., Parks, J.J. and Rigotti, N.A. (2008) Smoking cessation in patients with psychiatric disorders, Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry10: 52-58.
12.
Goodman, E. and Capitman, J. (2000) Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking among teens, Pediatrics106: 748-755.
13.
Guillon, M.S., Crocq, M.A. and Bailey, P.E. (2007) Nicotine dependence and self-esteem in adolescents with mental disorders, Addict Behav32: 758-764.
14.
Haas, A.L., Mupoz, R.F., Humfleet, G.L., Reus, V.I. and Hall, S.M. (2004) Influences of mood, depression history, and treatment modality on outcomes in smoking cessationm, J Consult Clin Psychol72: 563-570.
15.
Hall, S.M. (2007) Nicotine interventions with comorbid populations , Am J Prev Med33(6S): S406-413.
16.
Hall, S.M., Reus, V.I., Munoz, R.F., Sees, K.L., Humfleet, G. and Hartz, D.T. (1998) Nortriptyline and cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of cigarette smoking, Arch Gen Psychiatry55: 683-690.
17.
Haukkala, A., Uutela, A., Vartiainen, E., Mcalister, A. and Knekt, P. (2000) Depression and smoking cessation: the role of motivation and self-efficacy, Addict Behav25: 311-316.
18.
Hayford, K.E., Patten, C.A., Rummans, T.A., Schroeder, D.R., Offord, K.P. and Croghan, I.T. (1999) Efficacy of bupropion for smoking cessation in smokers with a former history of major depression or alcoholism, Br J Psychiatry174: 173-178.
19.
Hitsman, B., Borelli, B., McChargue, D.E., Spring, B. and Niaura, R. (2003) History of depression and smoking cessation outcome: a meta-analysis, J Consult Clin Psychol71: 657-663.
Hughes, J.R., Stead, L.F. and Lancaster, T. (2007) Antidepressants for smoking cessation, Cochrane Database Syst Rev24: CD000031.
22.
Husky, M.M., Mazure, C.M., Paliwal, P. and McKee, S.A. (2008) Gender differences in the comorbidity of smoking behavior and major depression, Drug Alcohol Depend93: 176-179.
23.
Janowsky, D.S. and Risch, S.C. (2003) Role of acetylocholine mechanisms in the affective disorders. In: Meltzer, H.Y. (ed.) Psychopharmacology: the Third Generation of Progress. New York: Raven Press, pp. 527-534.
24.
Japuntich, S.J., Smith, S.S., Jorenby, D.E., Piper, M.E., Fiore, M.C. and Baker, T.B. (2007) Depression predicts smoking early but not late in a quit attempt, Nicotine Tob Res9: 677-686.
25.
John, U., Meyer, C., Rumpf, H. and Hapke, U. (2004) Smoking, nicotine dependence and psychiatric comorbidity-a population based study including smoking cessation after three years, Drug Alcohol Depend76: 287-295.
26.
Jorenby, D., Hays, J.T., Rigotti, N.A., Azoulay, S., Watsky, E., Wiliams, K.E. et al. (2006) Efficacy of varenicline, an a4β2 nicotinic acetylocholine receptor partial agonist vs placebo or sustained-release bupropion for smoking cessation, JAMA296: 56-64.
27.
Kalman, D., Morissette, S.B. and George, T.P. (2005) Co-morbidity of smoking in patients with psychiatric and substance use disorders, Am J Addict14: 106-123.
28.
Kendler, K.S., Neale, M.C., MacLean, C.J., Heath, A.C., Eaves, L.J. and Kessler, R.C. (1993) Smoking and depression: a causal analysis, Arch Gen Psychiatry50: 36-43.
29.
Killen, J., Fortmann, S., Schatzberg, A., Hayward, C. and Varady, A. (2003) Onset of major depression during treatment for nicotine dependence, Addict Behav28: 461-470.
30.
Kohen, I. and Kremen, N. (2007) Varenicline-Induced manic episode in a patient with bipolar disorder, Am J Psychiatry164: 1269-1270.
31.
Lancaster, T., Hajek, P., Stead, L.F., West, R. and Jarvis, M.J. (2006) Prevention of relapse after quitting smoking, Arch Intern Med166: 828-835.
32.
Lasser, K., Boyd, J.W., Woolhandler, S., Himmelstein, D.U., McCormick, D. and Bor, D.H. (2000) Smoking and mental illness: A population-based prevalence study, JAMA284: 2606-2610.
33.
Lawrence, N.S., Ross, T.J. and Stein, E.A. (2002) Cognitive mechanisms of nicotine on visual attention , Neuron36: 539-548.
34.
Lerman, C., Niaura, R., Collins, B.N., Wileyto, P., Audrain-McGovern, J., Pinto, A. et al. (2004) Effect of bupropion on depression symptoms in a smoking cessation clinical trial, Psychol Addict Behav18: 362-366.
35.
Levin, E.D., McClernon, F.J. and Rezvani, A.H. (2006) Nicotinic effects on cognitive function: behavioural characterization, pharmacological specification, and anatomic localization , Psychopharmacology184: 523-539.
36.
Mihailescu, S., Palomero-Rivero, M., Meade-Huerta, P., Maza-Flores, A. and Drucker-Colin, R. (1998) Effects of nicotine and mecamylamine on rat dorsal raphe neurons, Eur J Pharmacol360: 31-36.
37.
Murphy, J., Horton, N., Monson, R., Laird, N., Sobol, A. and Leighton, A.H. (2003) Cigarette smoking in relation to depression. Historical trends from the Stirling County study, Am J Psychiatry160: 1663-1669.
38.
Nides, M. (2008) Update on pharmacologic options for smoking cessation treatment, Am J Med121(4A): S20-S31.
39.
Parrott, A.C. (2004) Heightened stress and depression follow cigarette smoking, Psychol Rep94: 33-34.
40.
Potter, A.S., Newhouse, P.A. and Bucci, D.J. (2006) Central nicotinic cholinergic systems: a role in the cognitive dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Behav Brain Res175: 201-211.
41.
Prochaska, J.J., Hall, S.M., Tsoh, J.Y., Eisendrath, S., Rossi, J.S., Redding, C.A. et al. (2008) Treating tobacco dependence in clinically depressed smokers: effect of smoking cessation on mental health functioning, Am J Public Health. Jan:98(3): 446-448.
42.
Repko, M., Van den Brink, W. and Huyser, J. (2007) Can depressed patients stop smoking; a review, Tijdschr Psychiatr49: 753-762.
43.
Rigotti, N. (2002) Treatment of tobacco use and dependence, N Engl J Med346: 506-512.
44.
Rondina, R.C., Gorayeb, R. and Bothelo, C. (2007) Psychological characteristics associated with tobacco smoking behavior, J Bras Pneumol33: 592-601.
45.
Shiffman, S., Johnston, J.A., Khayrallah, M., Elash, C.A., Gwaltney, C.J., Paty, J.A. et al. (2000) The effect of bupropion on nicotine craving and withdrawal, Psychopharmacology148: 33-40.
46.
Smith, S.S., Jorenby, D.E., Leischow, S.J., Nides, M.A., Rennard, S.I., Johnston, J.A. et al. (2003) Targeting smokers at increased risk for relapse: treating women and those with a history of depression, Nicotine Tob Res5: 99-109.
47.
Stapleton, J.A., Watson, L., Spirling, L.I., Smith, R., Milbrandt, A., Ratcliffe, M. et al. (2007) Varenicline in the routine treatment of tobacco dependence: a pre-cost comparison with nicotine replacement therapy and an evaluation in those with mental illness, Addiction103: 146-154.
48.
Tapper, A.R., McKinney, S.L., Nashmi, R., Schwarz, J., Deshpande, P., Labarca, C. et al. (2004) Nicotine activation of alpha4 receptors: sufficient for reward, tolerance, and sensitization, Science306: 1029-1032.
49.
Tizabi, Y., Overstreet, D.H., Rezvani, A.H., Louis, V.A., Clark, E., Janowsky, D.S. et al. (1999) Antidepressant effects of nicotine in an animal model of depression, Psychopharmacology142: 193-199.
50.
Turner, L.R., Mermelstein, R., Hitsman, B. and Warnecke, R.B. (2008) Social support as a moderator of the relationship between recent history of depression and smoking cessation among lower-educated women, Nicotine Tob Res10: 201-212.
51.
US Public Health Service (2000) A clinical practice guideline for treating tobacco use and dependence, JAMA283: 3244-3254.
52.
Vazquez-Palacios, G., Bonilla-Jaime, H. and Velazquez-Moctezuma, J. (2004) Antidepressant-like effects of the acute and chronic administration of nicotine in the rat forced swimming test and its interaction with flouxetine, Pharmacol Biochem Behav78: 165-169.
