How Safe Are Main News Bulletins for Children? Analyzing News Content in Terms of Suitability for Children

Abstract

This study aims to evaluate the appropriateness of main news programs broadcast on television channels for children's development. Children's development processes can be significantly affected by the content they are exposed to through the media. Violence, fear, and tragic events, which are frequently encountered especially in main news bulletins, may cause negative emotional responses in children. In this context, the study evaluates how suitable television news programs are for children by examining elements such as language use, visual elements, and presentation style. In the research process, the main news bulletins were systematically watched within a defined timeframe and evaluated using content analysis. Content analysis was conducted within the framework of criteria such as whether the language used in the news is simple and understandable, and whether the visuals are suitable for children's sensitivities. The findings reveal that most of the main news programs on television channels are not suitable for children, and that these programs often contain content that may negatively affect children's emotional development.

Keywords

main news bulletin child appropriateness content analysis media and children television news

Introduction

Television covers many types of programs and offers content that appeals to all age groups and interests. However, the type of program that maintains its place among these common cultural products is the main news bulletins. The main task of news is to communicate daily events that reflect the development of society (Postman & Powers, 1996). However, this message is usually conveyed through images of frightening events such as murder, robbery, death, accidents, and disasters. Shocking and frightening images in the news are emphasized with the idea that they will affect the viewers and arouse curiosity. At this point, the fact that especially child viewers’ developmental perception of reality is not as developed as adults indicates that such content may have negative effects on their mental, emotional, and social development.

The development of public policies on the impact of media content on children in Turkey is important to better ground the rationale for this study. Developed in 2006 in cooperation with Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) and the Ministry of National Education, the “Media Literacy” course is considered to be the first institutional step toward children's critical evaluation of media content (Radio and Television Supreme Council [RTÜK], 2012). In addition, the “Children and Media Movement” launched in 2013 aimed to protect children from negative content in the media and some regulations were made by RTÜK (2013). However, despite such initiatives, it is observed that children continue to interact with content containing violence, fear, and anxiety, especially in main news bulletins. This problem is not unique to Turkey. For example, in Australia, Green et al. (2024) stated that media literacy education is restructured according to the changing media habits of young people and this process contributes to the development of digital citizenship. Therefore, the relationship with media content has not only individual but also public and educational aspects. However, studies generally focus on the impact of media literacy training on children's media attitudes, and content analyses directly on the suitability of main news content for children are limited.

The cultivation theory given by Gerbner (1974) argues that exposure to intense visual media, especially television, will structure viewers’ perception of reality. According to Gerbner (2000), constant television viewing changes the way people perceive the world, so that the violence, fear, or other themes shown by television become a “reality” in the minds of viewers. In other words, people who spend more time in front of television tend to believe that the content presented is real (Gerbner et al., 2002). Since children lack the ability to critically interpret media content, they accept the images or events they see in the news as real.

Individuals who spend a lot of time in front of the television have a worldview that is shaped by the messages and values that are constantly repeated on television (Morgan & Shanahan, 2010). News content on television, which contains elements such as violence, fear, and tragedy, can shape both the way children perceive the world and their behaviors. Gerbner and Gross (1972) argue that television is a tool that transforms individuals’ behaviors into standardized roles and attitudes. The constant presentation of violence and disasters, especially through the news, may lead children to perceive such events as “normal” and cause desensitization (Akyüz et al., 2024). This situation also brings alienation among individuals. Studies have shown that exposure to scenes of violence causes individuals to become desensitized to violence and creates fear of becoming a victim of violence. According to Dündar (1996), the viewer becomes accustomed to violent images over time and this “normalization” may turn into a demand for more violence over time. Individuals who are exposed to violent incidents may become desensitized to repeated images of violence, leading to the normalization of such content and the need for more intense scenes of violence. This phenomenon of desensitization caused by exposure to violence becomes especially evident in children. Over time, children who watch violent movies begin to react less to violence in the real world, become indifferent to the pain and problems experienced by others, and fail to empathize (Karaboga, 2007).

Although television news is thought to appeal to adult viewers, children are also directly or indirectly exposed to this content. According to recent studies, 90% of children aged 6‒8 in Turkey watch the main news bulletins (Akyüz et al., 2024). This rate reveals how critical a role the content of the news plays in terms of child development. In the interviews in this study, children shared their thoughts about the news content, talked about the news they were upset about, and made explanations about what it meant. This finding shows that the process of watching the news is not only a passive exposure for children but also an active process of watching and making sense. Furthermore, according to RTÜK's media use report dated 2022, 53.1% of children watch television between 18:00 and 21:00. This time increases the direct exposure of children, as it is a time when the main news is broadcast and families spend time together in front of the screen. As a matter of fact, according to “Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes,” published by Ofcom in 2023, only 23% of children between the ages of 3 and 17 watch television alone, while 47% watch it with their parents (Ofcom, 2023). This finding shows that children's exposure to news bulletins largely occurs in the family environment without their awareness. These data show that children are exposed to news content not only by their choice but also involuntarily in the family environment, and that this exposure is systematically widespread to the extent that it cannot be ignored.

Although main news bulletins are a significant part of daily life, they may not be emotionally or cognitively appropriate for children due to the content they often present. It is known that negative affect reactions such as anxiety, fear, and insecurity may occur in children exposed to such content. In addition, considering the limited ability of children in the developmental stage to evaluate events with abstract concepts like adults, they may perceive the facts presented in the news as they are (Gerbner, 2000), which may have a negative impact on their mental health. In this context, the content of news bulletins, to which children are not directly defined as the target audience but to which they are heavily exposed, needs to be evaluated more closely in terms of both media policies and child development. This research fills an important gap by systematically examining whether the language, visual, and auditory elements used in news bulletins are suitable for children's sensitivities. Considering the developmental needs of children, analyzing whether news content is child-friendly is crucial for promoting media literacy awareness and parental awareness.

Materials and Methods

This study was conducted using content analysis, one of the qualitative research methods. Content analysis is a method in which the content of a communication medium is systematically recorded and analyzed and is widely used in researching media influence and media presentations (Gunter, 2002; Neuman, 2014). Content analysis is not only limited to newspaper news and articles, but also covers various types of media such as films, radio programs, television news, and motion pictures (Geray, 2004). In this study, an analysis based on certain categories was conducted to evaluate the suitability of the elements in the main news bulletins for children.

The assessment form used in the study was developed based on previous research on media effects and children's perception of media. Pioneering studies such as Kleemans et al. (2017) and Lang (2000) show that children are cognitively and emotionally sensitive to violence and traumatic content. Therefore, in the evaluation form, elements such as the frequency of violent scenes, language of presentation, visual intensity, and emotional load of the news were emphasized. In addition, Riddle et al. (2012) reported that media content triggers fear responses in children, which formed the theoretical basis for determining subcategories such as “emotional intensity” and “negative content language” in the study. While conducting content analysis in the study, the term “inappropriate content” was used to describe news themes that may have a harmful, frightening, confusing, or traumatic effect on children according to their age and developmental level. In particular, the explicit and intense presentation of negative events such as violence, deaths, disasters, accidents, wars, terrorism, loss, and sexual abuse were evaluated as inappropriate content for child viewers. This evaluation form was evaluated in terms of content validity by submitting it to the opinions of three academicians who are experts in their fields; it was revised and finalized in line with the feedback from the experts.

The sample of the study was determined using the purposive sampling method. In non-probability sampling methods, rather than giving equal chances to all individuals or objects in the population, the sample is deliberately chosen based on specific characteristics. This study is based on the data from TİAK (Television Audience Research Committee), which measures television viewership rates in Turkey and provides official ratings data. According to 2023 data, ATV, Show TV, and Fox TV channels with the highest ratings among the main news bulletins were selected. The selection process aims to analyze the content that children are most likely to encounter. A total of 183 news items analyzed in the study were obtained from the broadcasts of three channels on July 13, August 13, September 13, and October 13, 2023. We selected these dates from the same day of each month to reflect different agenda dynamics, ensuring content diversity and non-repetitive news structures. One hour of news bulletins were analyzed for each day, and the news broadcast by each channel for 4 days were systematically subjected to content analysis. This sample provides representative and comparative data on the frequency, type, and presentation of potentially harmful content for children in the news. One hundred and eighty-three meets the reliability and representativeness criteria recommended in news content analysis. In the qualitative content analysis of the literature, it is emphasized that 100 or more units should be analyzed as a sample size (Krippendorff, 2004; Neuendorf, 2017; Riffe et al., 2014).

This study aligns the concept of “child” with both national legislation and international standards. According to the Child Protection Law No. 5395 in force in Turkey and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, every individual under the age of 18 is considered a child (UNICEF, 1989). However, the study focused on the 6–11 age range, which is considered more developmentally sensitive, to assess the appropriateness of the content for children. This age group corresponds to the concrete operations period according to Piaget's theory of cognitive development. During this period, children often perceive what they see as real, lacking the capacity to abstract the events presented in the media (Rideout & Robb, 2020). Therefore, the content analysis focused on evaluating news themes according to the level of influence this age group has.

Data Analysis

The television main news bulletins analyzed for the study were analyzed within the framework of several categories. In the news analysis, elements such as the announcer's presentation before the news, the narrative language of the voice-over in the background, and the content of the news were categorized into various groups. These categories were assessed particularly in terms of elements that may contain inappropriate content for children. In the context of the language used by the announcer in the news presentation, “murder” and “dying/death,” whether the anchor or reporter used violent and traumatic words such as “fight/attack,” “wound/assault,” “fire,” “rape,” “taking one's own life” as well as words expressing negative emotions (sadness, fear, terror, and tension) was analyzed. Another category focused on the language used by the anchor or reporter. Similarly, it was assessed whether the reporter used the aforementioned violent words and expressed negative emotions. While anchors typically present the news in general manner in the studio, reporters provide more detailed and emotional accounts in the field. The language used by anchors is usually more formal and concise, whereas reporters offer more spontaneous and detailed information from the scene. Therefore, since the language use of anchors and reporters is different, they are analyzed in two separate categories. Reporters’ more realistic and detailed use of language may have a greater emotional impact on children, and should be scrutinized more carefully for appropriateness for children. The third category is related to visual content. In this category, it was analyzed whether the images in the news report contained blood, fire, weapons, bombs, dead or injured people, accident scenes, crying children, or adults. In addition, the presence of sounds such as fear, gunshots, screams, or explosions and whether the images were repeated or not were also among the elements analyzed.

To enhance the reliability of the research, the analysis of the news reports underwent a two-stage evaluation process. The analysis process was carried out independently by three researchers. First, two researchers coded each news bulletin separately according to predefined categories, and then these codings were compared and consensus was reached. In addition, inter-coder reliability was calculated through a check by a third external evaluator. Inter-coder reliability analysis was conducted for the codings that emerged as a result of the analysis of the two researchers in the first stage. This analysis was calculated using the formula given by Miles and Huberman (1994). The reliability coefficient calculated using this formula is expected to be at least 80%. The formula that calculates the reliability coefficient between coders is Δ = ∁/(∁ + ∂) × 100. In this formula, Δ is the reliability coefficient, ∁ is the number of topics/terms on which there is consensus, and ∂ is the number of topics/terms on which there is no consensus. The number of codes that were agreed upon between the two researchers in the study was 489, while the number of codes that were not agreed upon was 22. When the calculation was made using the formula related to these data, the inter-coder reliability coefficient was calculated as 95.7%. According to this result, it was concluded that the codes analyzed by the researchers were reliable.

Results

This section presents the findings obtained by analyzing the main news bulletins from various perspectives. Within the scope of the research, a total of 183 news items in the main news bulletins of three different television channels were analyzed. Findings on the number of news items, screen time, types of news items, and content that is not suitable for children for each channel are detailed below.

Figure 1 shows the channel-based distribution of the 183 news items analyzed in the study. Accordingly, ATV presented 40% of the total news with 73 news items, Show TV accounted for 32% with 59 news items, and Fox TV accounted for 28% with 51 news items.

In terms of news screen time, ATV (184 min) and Fox TV (180 min) presented news for similar amounts of time out of a total of 463 min of content, while Show TV, with 99 min of airtime, had a significantly lower total time than the other two channels. These findings show that ATV is the busiest channel in terms of both the number of news items and screen time.

News content was categorized according to 11 different news types determined beforehand (Figure 2). When the distribution is analyzed, the most frequently encountered news type is political news (n = 48; 27%). This is followed by economic news (n = 28; 15%), theft news (n = 19), war news (n = 8), traffic accidents (n = 6), magazine (n = 5), murder (n = 2), and fire news (n = 1). Other news items that could not be categorized were grouped under the heading “other,” and the number of news items in this group was 66. The Other category includes various contents that are not mainstream but are included in news bulletins, such as sports, weather, culture and arts, health, education, environment, and technology.

In line with the main objective of the study, news items were analyzed in terms of elements that are inappropriate for children (Figure 3). In total, 511 pieces of inappropriate content were identified. The distribution of these according to news types is as follows. War news reached the highest number of inappropriate content with a total of 97 inappropriate items, despite containing only eight news items. This shows that there are 12 inappropriate items on average in each war news item (19%). This finding reveals that war news contain intense content that may have a traumatic effect on children and is therefore the riskiest type of news for child viewers. Seventy-five inappropriate elements were identified in political news (15%). However, due to the high number of political news, the average number of inappropriate content per news item was relatively low at 1.6. There were 70 inappropriate elements in theft news, 33 in accidents, 27 in economy news, 18 in magazine news, and five in fire news. Murder news, although seen in only two instances, contained a total of 21 instances of inappropriate content, with an average of 10.5 instances per news item.

When the overall average was analyzed, there was an average of 2.79 pieces of content inappropriate for children in each news item. This indicates that children are likely to encounter more than one inappropriate content in each news-viewing experience.

The analysis of elements unsuitable for children in news content identified a total of 511 examples. As seen in Table 1, the most frequently encountered category among these contents was the negative emotions expressed by anchors, reporters, or subjects in the news. Such scenes involving emotions such as sadness, fear, helplessness, and anxiety were observed 130 times in total and accounted for 25% of all inappropriate content. The second most frequent category was the use of disturbing words such as “death,” “murder,” “rape,” “suicide,” and “wound.” Such words were used a total of 97 times, regardless of who said them, and accounted for 19% of all inappropriate content. Emotionally intense sound elements—screams, gunshots, explosions, and upsetting background music—were detected 65 times (13%) and were considered to trigger anxiety and fear reactions in child viewers. Repetition of traumatic images was observed 35 times (7%), which carries the risk of reinforcing negative effects. The findings show that the main news bulletins contain emotionally intense and potentially harmful content for children both visually and aurally.

The 511 inappropriate items identified during a total of 463 min of broadcasting indicate that, on average, an inappropriate item for children was shown on screen every 0.9 min (approximately every 54 s). Specifically, scenes of emotional intensity appeared every 2.85 min, images of harmful objects were shown every 8.4 min, and expressions or images related to death occurred every 6.8 min. This situation highlights the significant potential risk that main news bulletins pose for children in terms of frequency.

Table 1.

Frequency and Rate Distribution of Unsuitable Content for Children in Main News Bulletins.

Inappropriate news content for children	Frequency	Percentage
Negative emotions expressed (by anchor, reporter, or subjects in the news)	130	25
Disturbing words used (death, murder, wound, rape, and suicide—by any presenter/reporter)	97	19
Damaging materials in footage (weapons, bombs, blood, injured, or dead people)	95	19
Emotionally intense music or sounds (screaming, explosion, gunshots, and sad background music)	65	13
Repetition of traumatic visuals	35	7
Fire depicted (in footage or verbally stated)	25	5
Crying individuals (adults or children)	21	4
Violence/fighting verbally referenced (fight and attack)	19	4
Accidents and crashes	13	3
Expressions of fear (e.g., someone saying they are scared)	11	2
Total	511	100

Discussion

In our study, the news contents in the most frequently watched local news bulletins that are not suitable for children were analyzed. In the analyzed news, unsuitable content for children was found 511 times. The findings show that news bulletins frequently contain elements of violence, fear, tragedy, and negative emotions. In particular, it was determined that news types such as war, murder, theft, and accidents contain high rates of content unsuitable for children. The study reveals that children exposed to media content are a much more sensitive group and tend to accept the world presented by television news as equivalent to reality when evaluated within the scope of the cultivation theory given by Gerbner (1974).

One of the most striking findings of the study is the frequency of content that is not suitable for children in news bulletins. When the news bulletins analyzed, inappropriate content for children appeared on the screen approximately every 54 s. This shows that even if children watch the news bulletins for only 1 min, the likelihood of encountering content that is inappropriate for them is quite high. Among these contents, those reflecting particularly negative emotions appear on the screen every 3 min on average, while damaging materials, such as guns and bombs, are shown approximately every 8 min. This finding highlights the potential psychological effects of children's constant exposure to news items that contain violence, fear, and negative emotions. Previous research supports this concern. Several empirical studies have demonstrated that exposure to negative news content directly impacts viewers’ emotional states (Marin et al., 2012; McIntyre & Gibson, 2016). These studies indicate that negative news can lead to increased anxiety, sadness, and stress levels. Given the developmental vulnerability of children, it can be anticipated that regular exposure to negative news content may result in more profound and lasting emotional effects.

News stories that frequently emphasize negative emotions and contain violent content may have negative impact on children's psychological development. Some studies show that children between the ages of 8 and 18 spend up to almost 8 h a day using media, almost the same amount of time an adult spends at a full-time job (Strasburger et al., 2014). Children's contact with media starts at a very early age, becomes a part of daily life, and can increase over time and last for long hours (Solich, 2024). In addition, considering that 90% of children between the ages of 6–8 watch the main news bulletins on television in the evenings (Akyüz et al., 2024), the possibility of children experiencing an increase in anxiety levels by being exposed to various types of content that are not suitable for them increases. It has been reported that murder and war news content is frequently featured on television screens and may increase fear and anxiety in children (Smith & Wilson, 2000). Similarly, it has been emphasized that exposure to violent content may increase children's tendency to exhibit aggressive behaviors (Bushman & Huesmann, 2006). Research by the American Academy of Pediatrics shows that television viewing by young children has lasting negative effects on language development, reading skills, and short-term memory. It is also reported to contribute to sleep and attention problems (Hill, 2023). In this context, it can be said that children who frequently watch violent elements shown in the news may tend to exhibit such behaviors.

News bulletins do not provide appropriate content, especially for children whose emotion regulation skills are still developing, as they usually focus on real-time events and the content has a serious, often negative tone (Cantor, 1998). In this study, the use of expressions expressing negative emotions and images of people reflecting their negative emotions in the news were frequently encountered. Such content has the potential to negatively affect children's emotional development. Considering that news reflects the real world, it is inevitable that a world that is constantly presented with negative images will leave permanent traces in children's minds and cause feelings such as anxiety and fear at an early age (Kunucen, 2004).

Watching aggressive behavior models frequently featured in television news can lead children to develop similar reactions and imitate these behaviors (Büyükbaykal, 2007). As a matter of fact, it has been stated that violent news can weaken the sense of trust in children and lead to anxiety disorders (Cantor, 1998). In the news analyzed in our study, it was determined that news items containing elements of violence such as war, murder, and theft were included in the news, and even in magazine news, images of violence were unexpectedly encountered. This situation is considered to be an important factor that may lead to a damaged sense of trust and an increased risk of anxiety disorders in children watching the news. Presenting the news with elements such as violence, blood, fighting, and war and ignoring the possibility of child viewers being exposed to these contents cause children to identify the concept of news with negative events (Büyükbaykal, 2007).

Television news plays an important role in shaping viewers’ perception of the world. Viewers are exposed to more crime, violence, and tragedy than they are likely to encounter in their daily lives. The content and presentation of television news can have serious psychological and emotional effects, especially on children. Almost 30% of the news bulletins are devoted to crime, court, and police news, whereas topics such as education occupy only 2% (Radford, 2003). This situation, which supports the findings of our study, reveals the psychological effects of the content density of television news on viewers, especially children.

As Postman and Powers (1996) state, the images used in the news are presented to the viewers as the truth itself. By accepting the camera's eye as their own, viewers tend to think that what they see is the absolute reality. News content is constructed in such a way that viewers react emotionally to events by emphasizing dramatic elements. This situation becomes even more worrying for children whose perception of reality is not yet fully developed. From the perspective of child viewers, the content of television news bulletins reveals a worrying picture. In our study, it was determined that in the most frequently watched news bulletins, inappropriate content for children was encountered 511 times. It was observed that elements such as war, murder, theft, and accidents were highly included in the news analyzed. These findings indicate that the information children obtain from television news may have negative effects on their mental health (Baruah & Basu, 2024; Van Der Molen, 2004).

Conclusion and Recommendations

This study was conducted to evaluate the extent to which the content presented in the main news bulletins broadcasted on the leading national television channels in Turkey is appropriate for children's developmental characteristics. The findings of the study revealed that the content featured in prime-time news bulletins could pose various risks for children. As a result of the analysis made through the evaluation form created within the scope of the study, the narration and presentation of events such as murder, explosion, death, and physical assault, which are frequently featured in news bulletins, do not meet the criteria of suitability for children. However, this does not directly mean that news content should be censored or reproduced for children. In order to prevent children from being negatively affected by the content in the news, children can be given media literacy training. Younger age groups need special attention and training as they learn to consume and interact with news (Fromm & Smith, 2019). It has been stated that children who receive media literacy education gain the ability to critically evaluate television content and understand the effects of this content (Potter, 2013). It can also be ensured that this training is provided not only to children, but also to parents and educators, and that they take an active role in the process in which children critically evaluate the content.

For broadcasting organizations, it should be taken into consideration that children are frequently exposed to news content not only as a target audience but also as involuntary viewers. Especially in the presentation of sensitive content such as violence, traumatic events, and disasters, it is important to adopt more careful and responsible broadcasting principles in elements such as news language and visual selection. In addition, in future research, examining the effects of such content on children's emotional and cognitive responses through experimental methods will allow for a deeper understanding of the issue.

Limitations

The research is limited to a total of 12 main news bulletins, 183 news items, and the specified date range in three different television channels broadcasted in Turkey. In the study, the choice of three national channels with the highest viewership rates and limiting the selected news bulletins to specific dates aim to increase the representativeness of the data obtained and to focus on common news practices.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Kerime Meryem Özmen

Mehmet Hanifi Akyüz

Duygu Yalman Polatlar

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and/or analyzed in the study are not publicly available, and are only available from the corresponding author upon a reasonable request.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process

While composing this work, the authors used DeepL AI to improve the readability and use of existing language. It is crucial to emphasize that DeepL AI was solely employed to enhance the quality of the writing and facilitate better communication of ideas rather than generate new content.

Author Biographies

Kerime Meryem Özmen is currently pursuing her PhD in Early Childhood Education at Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakıf University and working as a lecturer at Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University. Her research focuses on media, child abuse, and early childhood education.

Mehmet Hanifi Akyüz is currently pursuing his PhD in Early Childhood Education at Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakıf University and has been working in the university's Child Development Program since 2013. His academic work focuses on media, film, news content, early childhood, and children's literature.

Duygu Yalman Polatlar conducts research in the fields of media, news content, teacher education, 21st-century skills, and foreign language teaching in early childhood. She is currently a faculty member in the Department of Preschool Education, Division of Basic Education at Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakıf University.

References

Akyüz

M. H.

Ozmen

Polatlar Yalman

(2024). The impact of the news on children and children’s perception of the news. Akdeniz İletişim, 45(1), 57–75. https://doi.org/10.31123/akil.1426450

Baruah

Basu

(2024). A survey research on children’s psychological impact to sensitive news. Asian Journal of Management, 15(3), 266–270. https://doi.org/10.52711/2321-5763.2024.00042

Bushman

B. J.

Huesmann

L. R.

(2006). Short-term and long-term effects of violent media on aggression in children and adults. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(4), 348–352. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.160.4.348

Büyükbaykal

(2012). Televizyonun çocuklar üzerindeki etkileri. İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 28, 31–44. https://doi.org/10.17064/iuifhd.84032

Cantor

(1998). Mommy I’m scared: How TV and movies frighten children and what we can do to protect them. Harcourt Brace.

Dündar

(1996). Televizyon ve şiddet. Cogito, 1(6–7), 385–389.

Fromm

Smith

(2019). Children and news. In J. Bulck (Ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Media Literacy (pp. 1–7). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118978238.ieml0019

Geray

(2004). Toplumsal araştırmalarda nicel ve nitel yöntemlere giriş. Siyasal Publications.

Gerbner

(1974). Communication: Society is the message. Communication, 1(1), 57–64.

10.

Gerbner

(2000). Cultivation analysis: An overview. Mass Communication & Society, 1(1), 3–12.

11.

Gerbner

Gross

(1972). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26(2), 172–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1976.tb01397.x

12.

Gerbner

Gross

Morgan

Signorielli

Shanahan

(2002). Growing up with television: Cultivation processes. In Bryant

Zillmann

(Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 43–67). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

13.

Green

Haddon

Livingstone

O'Neill

Stevenson

Holloway

(2024). Digital media use in early childhood: Birth to six. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350120303

14.

Gunter

(2002). The quantitative research process. In Jensen

K. B.

(Ed.), A handbook of media and communication research: Qualitative and quantitative methodologies (pp. 209–234). Routledge.

15.

Hill

D. L.

(2023). Why to avoid TV for infants & toddlers . HealthyChildren.org. https://www.healthychildren.org/english/family-life/media/pages/why-to-avoid-tv-before-age-2.aspx .

16.

Karaboga

M. T.

(2007). Türkiye'de özel televizyon kanallarının ana haber bültenlerinde şiddet olgusu [Master’s thesis; Mersin University].

17.

Kleemans

De Leeuw

R. N. H.

Gerritsen

Buijzen

(2017a). Children’s responses to negative news: The effects of constructive reporting in newspaper stories for children. Journal of Communication, 7(5), 781–802. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12324

18.

Krippendorff

(2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

19.

Künüçen

(2004). Televizyonda haber programları, şiddet ve çocuk. Selçuk İletişim, 3(2), 57–67. https://doi.org/10.18094/si.77005

20.

Lang

(2000). The limited capacity model of mediated message processing. Journal of Communication, 50(1), 46–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02833.x

21.

Marin

M. F.

Morin-Major

J. K.

Schramek

T. E.

Beaupré

Perna

Juster

R. P.

Lupien

S. J.

(2012). There is no news like bad news: Women are more remembering and stress reactive after reading real negative news than men. PLoS ONE, 7(10), Article e47189. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047189

22.

McIntyre

K. E.

Gibson

(2016). Positive news makes readers feel good: A “silver-lining” approach to negative news can attract audiences. Southern Communication Journal, 81(5), 304–315. https://doi.org/10.1080/1041794X.2016.1171892

23.

Miles

M. B.

Huberman

A. M.

(1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Sage Publications, Inc.

24.

Morgan

Shanahan

(2010). The state of cultivation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(2), 337–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151003735018

25.

Neuendorf

K. A.

(2017). The content analysis guidebook (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

26.

Neuman

W. L.

(2014). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Pearson Education Limited.

27.

Ofcom. (2023). Children and parents: Media use and attitudes report 2023. Office of Communications.

28.

Postman

Powers

(1996). Televizyon haberlerini izlemek ( Tunç

, Trans.). Kavram Publications.

29.

Potter

W. J.

(2013). Review of literature on media literacy. Sociology Compass, 7(6), 417–435. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12041

30.

Radford

(2003). Medya nasıl yanıltıyor. Güncel Publications.

31.

Radyo ve Televizyon Üst Kurulu (RTÜK). (2012). Medya Okuryazarlığı Gözden Geçiriliyor. https://www.rtuk.gov.tr/medya-okuryazarligi-gozden-geciriliyor-2564

32.

Radyo ve Televizyon Üst Kurulu (RTÜK). (2013). Türkiye’de çocukların medya kullanma alışkanlıkları araştırması. Department of Public Opinion, Broadcast Research and Measurement.

33.

Riddle

Cantor

Byrne

Moyer-Gusé

(2012). People killing people on the news: Young children’s descriptions of frightening television news content. Communication Quarterly, 60(2), 278–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463373.2012.669340

34.

Rideout

Robb

M. B.

(2020). The common sense census: Media use by kids age zero to eight, 2020. Common Sense Media.

35.

Riffe

Lacy

Fico

F. G.

(2014). Analyzing media messages: Using quantitative content analysis in research (3rd ed.). Routledge.

36.

Smith

S. L.

Wilson

B. J.

(2000). Children’s reactions to a fictional news story. Media Psychology, 4(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0401_01

37.

Solich

(2024). Působení médií na děti předškolního věku a související rizika [Effects of media exposure on preschool children and associated risks]. Institutio Infantium. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14251798

38.

Strasburger

Wilson

Jordan

(2014). Children, adolescents, and the media (3rd ed.). Sage.

39.

UNICEF. (1989). Convention on the rights of the child. https://www.unicef.org/child-rights-convention

40.

Van Der Molen

J. W.

(2004). Violence and suffering in television news: Toward a broader conception of harmful television content for children. Paediatrics, 112(6), 1771–1775. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.6.1771