Abstract
This qualitative study used guided critical reflection as a pedagogical strategy to explore transformative learning and leadership development of students in a leadership doctoral program. In written reflections after a weekend of classes, students (N = 19) reflected using carefully constructed questions to focus their thinking. The reflections were analyzed through the lens of transformative learning theory. Students noted increased self-awareness, questioned their assumptions/beliefs, experienced shifts in their mindsets, and were moved to action/proposals for action. Guided critical reflection, then, is presented as a viable learning strategy for leadership development. The transformative learning process aligns with the critical reflection process.
Keywords
Introduction
Leadership educators are charged with facilitating student learning to develop continual learners and effective leaders. Undeniably, one cannot discuss leadership development or the methods, techniques, and strategies that leadership educators use without including a mention of learning theory, how learners learn, and how they use the knowledge they gain. Leadership educators continually seek pedagogies and learning strategies that are experientially based, evoke sensemaking, increase self-awareness, develop leadership identity, and foster the ability to translate theory to practice in learners. One approach to reaching these outcomes is the employ of guided critical reflection using journaling, collaborative discussion, and other reflective learning practices. Critical reflection through journaling and collaborative dialogue is a powerful augmentation to other classroom activities used to enhance student learning and development. Critical reflection can change the culture of the classroom, allowing students to analyze and synthesize information deeply, express themselves freely, feel motivated to engage in deeper levels of thinking and learning, and develop a desire and ability to explore the self.
The process of critical reflection is noticeably aligned with the process of transformative learning. The alignment of these constructs shifts them from abstract ideas to operational and definable classroom practices that can be effectively employed by leadership educators as they assess student learning, which is an important gap to fill for the field of leadership development as a nascent discipline. Brookfield (1995) called for more work to better understand what people experience as they engage in critical reflection both emotionally and cognitively. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore the written reflections generated by doctoral leadership students to understand their perceptions of their learning, their journey through the Critical Reflection Process (CRP), and how they think and learn as they traverse the Transformative Learning (TL) process.
Leadership Education
Certainly, the world needs effective leaders in organizations, be they in for-profit, non-profit, or public service, and the interdisciplinary nature of leadership as a discipline suits this need. Essentially, society needs individuals “who have the capacity to lead and mobilize positive change” (Haber-Curran & Tillapaugh, 2015, p. 66). Importantly, the field of leadership studies has been endorsed as interdisciplinary and conveys concepts and philosophies from many areas of study. It has incorporated knowledge from various disciplines, including “history, theology, philosophy, psychology, anthropology, political science, religion, sociology, and education” (Klenke, 1993, p. 113) and has been influenced by such fields as business, engineering, education, healthcare, agriculture, and liberal arts, among others, and is extended across topics such as women in leadership and global leadership (Perruci & Hall, 2018). Whether teaching individuals who serve as positional or informal leaders and no matter the discipline, leadership educators must prepare and develop the current and next generation of leaders to understand the complexities of leadership and traverse the ambiguities and uncertainties of leadership in any environment. Higher education leadership programs must meet these needs using an interdisciplinary approach but must continue to explore and discover new effective pedagogies to enhance the field.
The objective of leadership education and leadership development is the transference of knowledge, information, and skills (Solansky, 2014). To operationalize and make leadership education useful, the leadership concepts presented must be underpinned by theory, practical, realistic, driven by actual experiences, provide time for reflection, and produce growth (Yukl, 1998). This is achieved by translating leadership theory into operational practice, ensuring that emerging leaders develop a leadership identity, philosophy, and capacity to think, make meaning and sense of leadership-related concepts, and transform that thinking into effective leadership practice. Importantly, critical leadership development has been positioned as a method of teaching and developing leaders that extends leadership development from the act of simply acquiring knowledge and building capacity to a deeper perspective of making meaning that acknowledges the dynamics of leadership so that an individual makes sense of their experiences and leadership processes and concepts, translating them into leadership enactment—doing (Dugan, 2017; Dugan & Humbles, 2018).
Leadership education should include strategies that cause emerging leaders to engage in reflective practices to heighten their self, team, and environment awareness leading to action and enhanced leadership practice. An essential element of effective leadership is knowing oneself (Bass, 2008). In business, a prevalent presumption is that a leader who possesses self-awareness, is self-actualized, and is autonomous will perform better as a leader than someone who does not possess these qualities (Allen et al., 2022). The increase of awareness of the self, others, and the environment is vital to developing leaders who are effective, particularly in complex and rapidly changing environments (Middleton et al., 2020), since the development of oneself is dependent upon one’s ability to be self-aware (McCormack & McCance, 2017). Any meaningful and considerable development of self can only take place amid the personal demands of increasing self-awareness (Gilbert, 2005). Thus, the process of developing self-awareness in leaders and emerging leaders should be the primary objective of any developmental program (Gardner et al., 2005). This can be achieved through participation in learning activities, exercises, techniques, and strategies, including reflective practices, causing leaders or prospective leaders to engage in sensemaking processes that deepen their understanding of leadership concepts and integrate that knowledge into their practice (Middleton et al., 2020). Middleton et al. (2020) examined how doctoral students (N = 15) who completed a leadership course applied what they learned in their practice as leaders. In this qualitative study, healthcare participants, the majority of whom where nurses, reported that their personal awareness was increased by taking self-assessments that helped them reflect specifically on their leadership characteristics in the workplace. These formal assessments contributed to their learning, pressing them to engage more substantially and directly with the related leadership theory and literature, and showing them the value of translating the concepts into practice in the workplace.
Transformative Learning Theory
The focus of this study is the exploration of Mezirow’s (2000) Transformative Learning (TL) theory in the context of the Critical Reflection Process (CRP). Grounded in constructivism and adult learning, TL involves deep, foundational modifications or restructuring of how one views themselves and the world around them (Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020), incorporating “mental construction of experience, inner meaning, and reflection” (p. 166). TL transpires when there is a shift in one’s beliefs, attitudes, or views (Mezirow, 2012). Illeris (2007) described TL as “the most far-reaching type of learning that changes the organization of the learner’s self, identity, [and] meaning perspectives” (p. 89). TL is “learning that transforms problematic frames of reference to make them more inclusive, discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to change” (Mezirow, 2012, p. 22; italics in the original). These changes may occur infrequently, though abruptly, or more increasingly gradual, and are often prompted by the occurrence of a disruptive problem or experience and are the result of a process of learning. Consequently, leadership educators must cultivate the learning environment in ways that empower students to be critically reflective as they explore and assess their own assumptions, beliefs, attitudes, ways of thinking, and ways of being (Haber-Curran & Tillapaugh, 2015).
The Transformative Learning (TL) Process
It is important to understand the intricacies of the TL process to recognize its alignment with CRP. Mezirow (1981) articulated four elements of the TL process: experience, critical reflection, reflective discourse, and action. While experience is key to TL, the learner must enter a period of critical self-examination (critical reflection) of their beliefs and assumptions to understand how they interpreted or make sense of the experience (Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020). This leads to a shift in perspectives about themselves, others, and the world around them, causing the individual’s assumptions to be transformed (Mezirow, 1981). Thus, pedagogies and learning strategies that evoke introspection in the learner in the context of the experience become important aspects of TL theory. Next, since new meaning is not easily recognizable, Mezirow suggests reflective discourse or dialogue as a means of disrupting the status quo of a learner’s thinking where individuals seek and take in different points of view and perspectives and continue to critically evaluate their thinking against those diverse perspectives (Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020). This discourse is not in the form of debate but more of a mutually deliberative or dialogic process to discover mutual understanding. Consequently, pedagogies and learning strategies to cultivate an environment where students engage in dialogue are important for this aspect of TL. Characteristics that indicate the existence of emotional intelligence, including compassion and responsiveness, interpersonal skills, and self-discipline, are crucial for this level of discourse (Mezirow, 2012). The final component of TL is action. Mezirow (2000) asserted that individuals may take “immediate action, delayed action, or reasoned reaffirmation of an existing pattern of action” (p. 24). This may include making decisions or engaging in an actual activity or event. Critical reflection as a tool of Transformative learning can stimulate understanding the actions that can or should be taken.
Guided Critical Reflection
There are many ways to view and define reflection and its purposes and uses. The body of work around the concept of reflection is vast and rapidly changing, taking on a variety of concepts and presented in numerous forms (Høyrup, 2004). Dewey (1933), in his seminal work relating reflection to the educative process, suggested that reflection is a form of thinking that includes a functional, enduring, and deliberate review or examination of any belief or set of knowledge pertaining to the underlying ideals that support it and any outcomes to which it leads. He considered reflection or thinking to be the objective of education. According to Schon (1983), reflection could also include thinking about an experience that one underwent in the past (reflection-on-action), that one is currently undergoing (reflection-in-action), or that will happen in the future (reflection-for-action).
Mezirow (1998) extended these definitions by speaking in terms of critical reflection, rather than simply reflection, as questioning one’s basic or conventional assumptions and thinking related to a specific experience. Mezirow (1998) distinguished critical reflection from reflection, which is merely thinking about or being aware of an object, suggesting that critical reflection includes an assessment or examination of the object of the reflection, potentially leading to a change in one’s perspective. Revised interpretations of meaning or perspectives imply that learning has taken place (Mezirow, 1990). Critical reflection involves examining one’s experiences, and examining those experiences is crucial to the development of leaders. Critical reflection, as defined by Mezirow (1998), can be used as an approach for integrating leadership theory and practice, enabling sense- or meaning-making and provoking self-awareness (Roberts, 2008). White and Guthrie (2016) refer to reflection as “meaning-making” or “processing” (p. 61) and offer that it includes a variety of actions that lead to learning that results from experience. Given Mezirow’s (1998) definition, critical reflection is perpetual, meaning ongoing. This sets critical reflection as part of or an ongoing extension to the learning process rather than a single event or activity (White & Guthrie, 2016) and offers leadership development facilitators the strength of a tool that can be used to help learners deepen their self-awareness and growth as leaders.
Importantly, “[t]he process of leadership is intrinsically connected to learning” (Roberts, 2008) or education, and leadership educators must employ critical reflection to help students make sense of their new experiences and reframe how they view problems to develop better solutions and relate better to those whom they lead (Densten & Gray, 2001). This reframing suggests double-loop learning as it is a loop back to the problem to view it from a different perspective. Argyris (2004) proposes that the leader’s ability to learn encompasses their capacity for invoking double-loop learning which involves the ability to test and challenge deep-seated thinking and beliefs. Error correction by adjusting the assumptions and values that govern one’s action is a critical aspect of double-loop learning (Argyris, 2002). This implies growth and change as a leader. Growth in leadership is related to one’s ability to learn, and learning involves examining or challenging one’s underlying beliefs and assumptions. Hence, the connection of leadership to learning positions the use critical reflection pedagogies as viable approaches for developing leaders.
The leadership educator’s role is to provide opportunities for students to reflect critically to become more self-aware leaders. Huber (2002) proposes that the leadership educator is the facilitator of students’ learning process by causing them to seek inwardly to understand their own values and outwardly to understand their connection to the world. In doing so, several reflective pedagogies may be applied, such as reflective journals, presentations, essays, online discussions, written responses to reading (White & Guthrie, 2016), poster presentations, double-entry journals, portfolios, worksheets, and experiential case studies (White, 2012). Day et al. (2014) suggest the use of self-narratives or self-stories as a way to increase self-awareness. Class preparation reflections, metacognition (thinking about thinking), note reflection, and observation reflection are methods of helping students move to deeper levels of learning (Stover & Seemiller, 2017). Though verbal reflection might prove to be more difficult to assess, it is still presented as a viable reflection method for helping students synthesize theories and convert them into practice (Roberts, 2008; White & Guthrie, 2016). These forms of instruction should be used throughout the leadership course rather than tacked on at the end of the course as a final assignment (Roberts, 2008). Since 21st century leaders must engage in continual critical reflection to meet the challenges and complex problems with which they will be presented (Lyman & Gardener, 2008), a goal of the facilitator might be to move the learner to have reflective competence, which involves one continually challenging and examining their underlying beliefs and assumptions to discover relevant gaps in knowledge (Rogers et al., 2013).
Critical reflection in the classroom may be freeform in the form of daily or periodic journal writing, or more structured, formal, and guided. The facilitator may leave it up to the student to determine how and when to reflect or formalize the reflection process by asking formulated questions to guide the student’s pathway to thinking and learning at specified times and situations. Thus, guided critical reflection extends the concept of critical reflection to a more structured or defined approach in which the student is asked a set of carefully crafted questions to direct their thinking toward a particular trajectory and discovery. Branson (2007) uses the term structured reflection, used to help the student to traverse any discomfort with reflection and maintain the serial order or progression of the information as they move through the process. Kim (1999) proposed a structured model called critical reflective inquiry used in clinical practice to help students enhance and expand their practice through self-reflection. The model guides the students through description of the practice, questioning their underlying beliefs and examining alternatives for improving their practice. Cardiff (2012) speaks of the use of guided critical reflection or critical reflective inquiry using personal narratives or stories to help students learn. Smith (2001) proposed the use of the process action learning to help students develop the habit of reflective inquiry, since reflection does not always come easy or is not always a natural ability for learners. Action learning is an “approach that enables leaders to develop capabilities while working to solve urgent organizational or social problems” (Volz-Peacock et al., 2016, p. 318). These various forms of critical reflection are guided by the facilitator. Consequently, guided critical reflection can be positioned as a simple journaling exercise or as a complex activity with more specific and defined goals, objectives, and purposes in the learning process.
The mention of reflection often leads one to believe that it is only an individual activity; however, it is possible for guided critical reflection to transpire outside of or within the context of group discourse. Because learning is always relational, it thrives on dialogue and listening as essential elements to its process (Jordi, 2011). Daudelin (1996) explored the notion of reflecting on one’s own, within dyads, and within groups. Though reflecting alone or in dyads seems to lead to personal development and intrapersonal dynamics, reflecting in groups tends to facilitate interpersonal aspects of learning like the need to recognize multiple and diverse perspectives. Discussion-based leadership classes can have meaningful influence on student learning (White & Guthrie, 2016). Discussion-based classes involve students verbally reflecting and sharing varying perspectives and ideas. Guided critical reflection is useful in collaborative groups and group discussions in and out of the classroom. An important form of classroom instruction is the use of small group discussions on case studies or project team assignments that allow students to engage in rich and informative discussions about leadership. Thus, critical reflection and guided critical reflection are not only relegated to being used for individual learning. Accordingly, critical reflection and guided critical reflection are pedagogies to employ Transformative Learning Theory in the classroom.
The Critical Reflection Process (CRP)
The importance of critical reflection can be understood when one recognizes the impact that the development of assumptions has on learning, growth, and change in individuals. People have enormous capacity to develop and carry assumptions, which are “the conceptual glue that holds our perspectives, meaning schemes and habits of mind in place” (Brookfield, 2009, p. 294). Much of how adults formulate thoughts, words, and actions is driven by assumptions they develop over time from childhood, assumptions about what is right and wrong, what is proper, and how the world should operate. Kramer (2016) uses the strength of the term “govern” (p. 31) to indicate the level of influence that our assumptions have on what we think, say, and do. “They direct our attention. They are rules or neuronal programs in our mind that construct our thinking” (p. 31). We do not necessarily recognize these assumptions or the effect that they have on our existence, thinking, or behaviors (Brookfield, 2009). Without our awareness, “they frame the world for us” (Kramer, 2016, p. 31). “Ideas and actions that we regard as commonsense conventional wisdoms are often based on assumptions regarding the credibility of authority sources” (Brookfield, 2009, p. 293). Kramer (2016) even highlights our need for these rules and equates them with our habits of mind that are necessary when solving problems. We formulate these assumptions by interacting with and modeling people we have high regard and respect for and whom we trust. One can think of this as the natural way that humans learn, grow, and endeavor to make sense of the world.
Our environment and the society in which we live help shape our thinking in profound ways and without us knowing it. Brookfield (2009) suggests that the beliefs and perspectives we develop are “sometimes the same as the ones that have been constructed by a dominant group or class to keep us servile and marginalized” (p. 294). Dugan (2017) describes this as hegemony or subtle form of social control resulting from the individuals in a society conceding to the ideologies of a dominant group. He speaks of the intense power of hegemony because it operates deeply within the subconscious of individuals and is intently buttressed by social systems within a society or environment. Kramer (2016) boldly proclaims that leader performance and leadership effectiveness are directly related to the lens through which leaders view the world, how they make meaning of their environment and experiences, and how they interpret or make sense of what they see, think, and do. Thus, when a leader is purposefully aware of self, others, and their surroundings or environment, they can enhance their leadership performance through more meaningful interpretations of their experiences.
The learning process is often initiated by an experience or event. Mezirow (1990), in his description of the four-stage transformative learning process, refers to the tension that a learner experiences, when elements of an experience conflicts with their deeply held assumptions and beliefs, as a disorienting dilemma. During this disorienting dilemma, the adult learner becomes cognizant of assumptions that have gone unchallenged and begins to recognize the need to examine those assumptions (Brookfield, 2009). The assumptions, however, must first be clearly identified before an examination process can occur. Identifying assumptions is the initial undertaking in CRP, which is the second stage of the transformative learning process (Brookfield, 2009; Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020; Mezirow, 1990).
After the identification of the assumption, the learner enters a process of evaluating the assumption. This involves questioning the outcomes or consequences of the assumption and our expectations regarding those outcomes or consequences; reviewing evidence of whether having the assumption is valuable, sensible, or valid; and considering multiple different perspectives about the assumption (Brookfield, 2009). Here, one can see through the eyes of someone else. These examination activities lead to the development of new perspectives and alternative ways of thinking, and the recognition that our previous thinking and actions have been based on beliefs that have previously gone unexamined. This process is often facilitated by reflective discourse or dialogue, the third stage of the transformative learning process (Mezirow, 1981), where the learner’s status quo is disrupted. The hope is that these processes will lead to eventual action or a change in the learner’s actions. Similarly, Dugan (2017) offers critical perspectives as a method of self-exploration using critical self-reflection to extend sensemaking and explore unchallenged assumptions, noting that doing this requires a level of vulnerability, abeyance of ego, and comfort with being imperfect. He further offers metacognition as a tool for learners to participate more intently in the learning process, becoming aware of, not only what they know and what they do not know, but how they think what they think.
It is critically important that leadership educators reduce barriers to reflection so that an environment for reflection can be cultivated, since, as forestated, reflective practices are not always a natural or easy activity for learners. Barriers to reflection, most importantly, lack of time to reflect, and fear and anxiety about reflection outcomes, must be addressed (White & Guthrie, 2016). For example, Mezirow (2000) purports that emotionally charged issues or “sociocultural factors such as racism, sexism, and classism may impede or encourage critical reflection and reflective discourse” (Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020, p. 189). Notably, Zarate and Mendoza (2020) highlighted the fact that individuals found different ways to employ or withdraw from critical reflection and self-examination in the context of the notion of privilege. As viable solutions to these barriers, White and Guthrie (2016) offer the notion of time during class for reflection or including reflection as part of assignments, along with approaches such as meetings with individual students, small student group discussions, and engaging in authentic reflections with students to model reflective practices. The goal is to demonstrate the importance of critical reflection to students and foster an environment in which they feel motivated to reflect.
Guided critical reflection, then, is presented in this study as a viable pedagogy or learning strategy for leadership development. An understanding transformative learning theory in this context could shift the perspectives and teaching practices of leadership educators as they design and construct leadership development strategies that support adult learners during the learning process. Importantly, this learning orientation and how it positions improving learning and the process of learning are particularly relevant to the interpretation of reflections produced by students in a doctoral leadership development program. Thus, the purpose of this current study is to explore the reflections of doctoral students in a leadership educational program in the context of TL theory. The following research questions were posed:
RQ1: How do leadership students’ reflections using the guided critical reflection strategy, align with or exemplify transformative learning theory?
RQ2: What mindset changes, shifts, or deepening of learning occur in leadership students when guided critical reflection is used as a learning strategy?
Methods
The Ed.D. leadership program is a closed-cohort program in which a cadre of up to 25 students enter the program, take the same classes, and hopefully, graduate together. Each cohort starts in the fall semester of the academic year with the first course: Leading Your Organization. This course was designed to provide a relevant framework for participants to nurture and apply the understandings, skills, and dispositions required of leaders of 21st century organizations; encourage the investigation of participants’ leadership assumptions, behaviors, and goals; and allow students to begin personal planning to improve leadership effectiveness. The program uses a weekend model, meeting four alternating weekends, Friday nights, 6 pm to 9 pm and Saturdays, 8 am to 4 pm.
The class operated in a face-to-face modality. The physical classroom was designed seminar style with four pods of tables that allowed groups of four to six students to sit together. Various leadership theories, paradigms, styles, models, and concepts were presented and discussed, and the students completed various self-assessments relating to leadership, personality, style, and thinking to prepare them to be able to craft their own leadership identity and increase self-awareness. Many of the topics covered included the requirement to pre-read materials (articles, textbooks, and videos) and take self-assessments before class sessions. During class time, topics were introduced using PowerPoint lectures. For some topics, students were allowed time for individual reflection and introspection before, during, and after class sessions. For other topics, the full class engaged in dialogue together where time was provided for learners to express aloud on the given topic. Here, dialogue was initiated by asking one or more questions. Also for other topics, students were placed in small groups to engage in group dialogue, listen, and complete activities, assignments, and projects collaboratively. Self-assessment topics were discussed during class where students had the opportunity to understand the assessment and evaluate/assess their individual outcomes. Thinking about the results of an assessment will cause self-reflection and critical analysis since one will want to consider reasons for or question the results to increase self-awareness. The following topics were covered during those sessions: Resilience, Johari Window, Reflective Thinking, Reflective Inquiry, Action Inquiry, Locus of Control, Task- versus Relationship-Oriented Leadership, Myers Briggs Type Indicator self-assessment, Emotional Intelligence self-assessment, and Thomas Kilmann Conflict Management self-assessment. Finally, students were required to submit a journal entry within three days after they attended the first weekend class sessions.
Procedures
Reflections were collected through the Blackboard Learning Management System using the Journal entry function. Students were required to submit a journal entry within three days after they attended the first weekend class sessions. All students in the class were required to submit a reflection for a grade (5% of their total grade), but each student was given the opportunity to complete an informed consent form. Only the reflections of the students who consented to participate were used in this study. Though the submissions were not anonymous when they were submitted (for the purpose of assigning a grade), identifiers were removed during data analysis. The reflections were then uploaded to Atlas.ti software for analysis.
Instrument
The journal entries used the guided CRP by asking the students to choose two topics/concepts that resonated with them during the first weekend of class sessions. This process is based on the work of Kolb (1984) and Gibbs (1988) but was adapted from Wight et al. (2016). The CRP involved the learners using a four-step process that includes: (a) Step 1: describing the learning situation, (b) Step 2: analyzing the learning situation, (c) Step 3: understanding the learning situation and how it affected them, and finally, and (d) Step 4: identifying and describing possible future actions because of their learning.
Students could choose from topics/concepts covered in required and optional class reading, material presented and discussed during full class sessions, or discussions the students engaged in during various small group sessions during the weekend. The key was to select two topics that most significantly impacted them and affected their learning and thinking. For each of the two topics/concepts, the reflecting student was required to answer 10 questions. Question 1 aligned with Step 1 of the CRP, asking the students to describe the two concepts or topics. Questions 2 to 4 aligned with Step 2, asking students to evaluate their previous thinking on the topics, new ideas that challenged them about the topics, and whether they were open to learning concerning the topics. Questions 5 to 7 aligned with Step 3, asking students to explore what they think now or have learned concerning the topics, what changes in their thinking or assumptions, or shifts in their mindset occurred concerning the topics, and when did the shifts occurred. Questions 8 to 10 aligned with Step 4 and asked the students to consider how they will use the new learning, what specific outcomes in their performance they expect from their new learning, and how they will continue to develop in the topical areas.
Sample
Twenty-one students were enrolled in the leadership course. Demographic data from the university revealed that 57% of students identified as female. Racial identities were reported as 33% Black or African American, 43% White, and 14% more than one race, while ethnic identities were reported as 10% Hispanic or Latinx. The age ranges of participants were 14% 25 to 30, 29% 31 to 40, 29% 41 to 50, and 29% 51 to 60. The specific disciplines for the participants of this study were not recorded; however, the program typically enrolls students from multiple disciplines, including higher education, K-12 education, law enforcement, military, government, faith-based, non-profit, and for-profit organizations. The reflections for only students who provided informed consent were included in the study (N = 19).
Data Analysis Process
Using Atlas.ti software, student reflections were coded and categorized. Some of those categorizations were arranged into subcategories. Nine categories emerged as indicated in Table 1, which lists the categories, subcategories, and number of times the category/subcategory occurred in the student reflections. The categories were then analyzed for alignment and association with Transformative Learning Theory as the focus of this study. In Results section below, the number of reflection comments is denoted in parentheses (##). All students’ comments in the Results section are denoted in italics.
Categories and Subcategories.
Results
Under the When Affected category, students indicated that their learning was most often affected during group/class discussions (26), reading articles (14), and reviewing results of self-assessments/review results (12). Under the Behaviors/Actions category, students proposed future shifts in behavior (125); shifted their behavior or took action (13); and mentioned stopping, reflecting, considering, and/or questioning their current actions (7). Under the Mindset Shifts category, students reported that they became more open; broadened perspectives; thoughts were extended; or increased/changed perspective, opinion, or thinking (70); became more aware, self-aware, new awareness of self (22); experienced positive shifts in self-perception (22); and realized shifts in insight on others (13). Students indicated that they Gained New Knowledge (49). They referenced and that they were open to learning something new on the topics (47). Under the Previous Thinking category, students indicated that they held previous self-perceptions (43), existing knowledge about a concept (29), erroneous knowledge (15), no knowledge (12), and some knowledge (10) about the topics.
Reflection Alignment with Transformative Learning Theory (RQ1)
Research Question 1 asks: How do leadership students’ reflections using the guided critical reflection strategy, align with or exemplify Transformative Learning Theory? CRP (described previously) aligns with the process of transformative learning (also described previously) that took place for nearly all 19 students. As an example, for one student, the TL process was evident in their thinking about results from a self-assessment. Their reflection clearly revealed the shift in beliefs and assumptions that occurred. After the experience of completing the self-assessment and calculating their score during a class session, they identified and then began to evaluate their assumptions, stating My assumptions. . . were that things happened to me because of other people. If someone were to make me act out of character, I would blame them for making me do that. They evaluated the value of the assumptions by indicating that they had experienced high levels of anxiety because of their beliefs to the point where they had to see a therapist in the past, expressing Instead, I should have looked within as to why I allowed someone to get me [to] that point of anger. I kept blaming others instead of focusing on what I needed to change. They heard multiple perspectives on the topic during class discussion: Hearing the different opinions from my peers regarding Locus of Control gave me a lot of insight. It made me realize that I am not alone in the way that I used to think. It also gave me insight into how others feel about this topic. This led to development of new thinking and perspectives: I went from blaming others for my reaction towards them to reflecting within and realizing why I reacted the way I did. . . I also realized that things might take a lot of time to change. It will not just happen in a day, but I will need to be persistent for the change to occur. The student further stated I believe that I will be able to continue a healthy balance … This will not only help me in the workforce but outside of work as well. By focusing on the aspects of life, I can control will prevent an increase in my anxiety. . . My support system will hopefully help me reflect on situations and how I responded to them. . . I will begin to think more positively, and hopefully, that will decrease my anxiety. A decrease in my anxiety will allow me to become more comfortable around my peers in both social and work settings. Finally, the student acknowledged that the experience itself, understanding more about the topic, and self-reflection really does help change your thought process. . . It has helped me think more about my actions, instead of what others have done to me that [are] outside of my control.
Students revealed that they became more aware or self-aware; became more open; broadened their perspectives; extended, increased, or changed their perspectives, opinion, and thinking; experienced positive shifts in their self-perception; and experienced shifts in their insight on others (131), for example I recognized as a task-oriented leader; I can sometimes be dismissive of those who are relationship-oriented. I must find a balance between being an introvert and task-oriented leader in order to truly engage with my colleagues. This will only further our shared goal of providing superb customer service to our students.
Connecting the findings of this study to TL theory can also be seen in the expression by one student concerning their knowledge of the concept of emotional intelligence. The jolt of being told by someone they just met in the class that they come across as intimidating may have been the cause of the swift shift in the student’s thinking. This student also acknowledged that they needed to balance task-orientation and relationship-orientation to cultivate better relationships with colleagues and those who report to them, stating that they draped a sign in their office as a reminder that read: The
Significantly, all 19 students spoke of the acknowledgements, realizations, and conclusions that they were able to come to about themselves, their actions and practice, or their thinking during periods of self-reflection. Several students mentioned the value of reflecting and the need to be more intentional and take more time to reflect. A few comments suggested the students validated themselves by stating: . . .I am resilient. . .; I have a growth mindset and am open to reflect on my weaknesses. . .; and I have begun viewing myself in a new light.
Most students (15) were open to learning; however, 1 student was adamant that they were closed to learning about the topic of Locus of Control. Having been introduced to the topic many years ago and having undergone a battle with cancer, the student rejected the notion that they had control over events in their life, stating: My belief was simply: to think you have control over events is hubris and is in practice futile. . . The student admitted that discussions in small groups caused them to soften my position, see another point of view and to realize I need to discuss ideas in a more calm, positive, and constructive way that we can learn from, as opposed to I’m right and you should accept it. . . Their dialogue in small groups and hearing examples, experiences, and different perspectives from their cohort members helped them deconstruct the existing knowledge they had on the topic and begin to reconstruct new perspectives on the topic shifting to a new position: No one was disagreeing that things you didn’t plan for don’t occur, what was different was that they believed [their] choices mattered.
Another student indicated that they were only semi-open to learning something new about the topic conflict management. They simply did not think there was any more they needed to learn. However, small group discussions yielded the following comment My highest score was in competing. The name alone gives off a negative connotation. . . I need to avoid this mode when I want all parties to “buy in” and I have the time to allow for sharing of ideas/options, indicating an acknowledgement of need/reason to change and a shift from the old way of thinking. Two other students noted being not very open to learning anything new about a topic but revealed shifts in their thinking because of group discussions. Thus, one can see how the students’ thinking in these scenarios was shifted or transformed through self-assessment, self-reflection, small group dialogue, and large group discussion.
Transformative learning is also evidenced by action, actual shift in the learner’s behaviors, or a proposal of future action by the learner (Behaviors/Actions in Table 1). Students made a total of 13 references to shifts in action or actual actions taken, including: purchasing reading and other materials to learn more about a topic (6), hanging reminders signs in their office (2), adding reflection as a regular activity (1), identification of people to help/support/collaborate with (1), practicing new skills (2), and developing strategies for taking action (1). Seven references were made to stopping, reflecting, considering, and/or questioning their current actions, which are actions within themselves. Further, one student highlighted a noticeable shift in their response to a situation after class from their previous responses to similar situations in the past, stating I had a meeting at my job on Monday [after the first weekend of class] involving an unexpected personnel matter that surfaced. I immediately began thinking of strategies and traits associated with resiliency. I realized very quickly that my response to the matter was different from my previous responses to similar situations in the past.
Importantly, most comments within the overall Behaviors/Actions category related to the proposed future shifts in behaviors (125) subtheme, including: asking questions more rather than make assumptions and engage in dialogue about the topics (6), becoming or staying more open and aware of their thinking and actions (6), continuing to grow and develop (20), developing a vision, engaging in self-discipline, and work toward change (7), evaluating or questioning concepts and my thinking and actions (12), integrating new knowledge into practice (30), helping others learn about the topics (11), and learning more about the topics (17).
Reflections Leading to Mindset Shifts, Changes, and Deepened Learning (RQ2)
Research Question 2 asks what mindset changes, shifts, or deepening of learning occur in leadership students when using guided critical reflection as a learning strategy? One way the answer can be considered is by viewing the comments labeled with the overall category grouping of Previous Thinking (109) as compared to those labeled with the overall category of Mindset Shifts (131), New Knowledge (49), and Reinforced Assumptions/Beliefs (11).
Students with Previous Thinking who held erroneous existing knowledge/assumptions regarding the concept (15) spoke of their previous assumptions about conflict management, people who are task-oriented versus relationship-oriented, where the blame lies for what happens to them, introverted versus extroverted people, whether discrimination still exists, how conflict should be handled, and how stress and disruption should be viewed and handled. There were also assumptions about what a leader is and leadership, for example: I assumed leadership was black and white. There were 41 comments indicating that students held previous self-perception before discussion of and selection of their topics. These self-perceptions ranged from positive attributes, such as their ability to communicate effectively, along with 16 others, to acknowledgement of their white privilege. One student expressed that they previously believed life was happening to me. . . Because of that feeling I stopped taking chances and chasing opportunities. There was also one comment indicating that a student held previously negative view/negative assumptions about the concept, including their statement that: For a long time, my style of approaching conflict particularly when it came to dealing with my previous boss was to avoid at all cost!
Under the overall category of Mindset Shifts, students who reported they became more aware/self-aware/new awareness of self (22) suggested that there are parts of themselves that they themselves do not know. They spoke of accepting that they were not already self-aware and realizing the value of becoming more self-aware, particularly as it relates to developing as a leader. This realization was triggered by results of self-assessments or through critical dialogue with classmates. Several students alluded to the need to better understand their emotions and behaviors and how those behaviors affect others. Others mentioned that, though they scored high on certain self-assessments, they came to the realization that they still needed to develop certain leadership qualities and skills. Still others expressed that they believe they must strive to be more conscious of and pay closer attention to their emotions, their reactions, how they view themselves, their behaviors, and their practices. Other students commented that they became more aware of their inflexibility; their reluctance to innovate or improvise (step out of their own comfort zones, usually for fear of being or just appearing different); their vulnerability to criticism (aversion to conflict); and their tendency toward neediness (needing praise) and selflessness (establish their value by doting attention on others) at the sometime.
Students who reported they became more open/broadened perspective/thoughts extended or increased/changed perspective/opinion/thinking represented the most comments (70) in the overall category of Mindset Shift. Students again spoke of becoming more enlightened regarding their emotions; their reactions; how they view themselves; their behaviors; their practices; their understanding of leadership and what a leader is; how they respond to anxiety and disruption; and, importantly, how they treat, interact with, and communicate with others. There were also some important realizations about how conflict should be managed and whether discrimination still exists. Importantly, one student spoke of the effects of their inability to self-regulate, stating [g]aining a better understanding of Emotional Intelligence allowed me to realize how everything is connected and how it all impacts one another. Because of my inability to self-regulate when I’ve been triggered, I may have kept myself from being invited into certain spaces.
Hearing from others helped some students realize there were different views and thinking on certain topics causing them to be more open and consider perspectives they had not previously considered. One student noted a shift in their mindset as it relates to protecting themselves and their privacy versus sharing and building trust with members of the cohort, stating [p]rivacy can be a prison and storytelling a conduit to increase morale and trust. Another student acknowledged their need to adjust their treatment of others, expressing I should not powerhouse over introverts. I have done this on occasion, and although I am not proud of it, I thought I was keeping the ball moving. Instead, I was pushing the person out. I will value the opinions of all people with the knowledge we have something to learn from everyone we meet.
Twenty-two comments under the overall Mindset Shift category suggested the students experienced a positive shift in self-perception. The students mostly mentioned areas in which they could develop or be strengthened, including recognizing the personality, styles, and emotions of others; how they as a leader or colleague treat others (including their level of emotional intelligence); their conflict management skills; how they make decisions; their communication and listening skills; their ability to manage stress; how they deal with disruption; their ability to continuously self-reflect; their level of self-awareness and the way they view themselves; and their self-confidence and self-worth.
Importantly, students who reported they experienced a shift in insight on others (13) commented on new ways of seeing others who are different than they are (introverts vs. extroverts), new ways of viewing the concept of collaboration and collaborating with others, perspectives about helping others grow and change, perspectives about managing conflict with others, and perspectives about other people’s level of emotional intelligence, including [t]he irony is that I have a few relationship-oriented staff members and I honestly used to think they were lazy, distracted slackers!; and finally, I am oftentimes rigid; “get the job done”/“meet my expectations” mentality. But when individuals fail to meet the standard, or are performing at a level below their potential, I don’t naturally ask, “Is an outside influence affecting their emotions and their overall performance?” Thus, one can see the shifts in thinking from previous thinking.
Discussion
This study used guided critical reflection as a pedagogical strategy to support the learning and leadership development of students in an organizational leadership doctoral program. After a weekend of classes, students were asked to choose two topics that resonated with them and answer specific questions concerning their learning on those two topics. The students’ reflections were analyzed in the context of TL theory and for evidence of mindset shifts, changes, and deepened learning. A strength of guided critical reflection is in students’ perceptions of their increased self- and other-awareness, deep learning, and mindset shifts over a short time (2 days of classes in this case). This is a high impact educational practice that shifts the focus from the actions of the teacher to more learning-centered approaches to facilitate learning and engage learners (Chuang, 2021).
The students’ reflections demonstrated outcomes of their learning and aligned with TL theory (Research Question 1). Student reflections can be viewed as a simulated recordings of the process of learning in real time demonstrating their previous assumptions, the new information they are gaining, how they allow the information to “sit with them” or how they hold the information, and how that information is processed as they learn self-assessment results, engage in critical self-reflection, or engage in dialogue with their classmates (Brookfield, 2009; Kramer, 2016). Critical reflection allows the learner to construct their own learning to engage in the development of their identity as a leader (Dugan, 2017). In the reflections for this study, one can see the step-by-step process of the guided CRP, and how learners reflected on; critically evaluated and questioned their previous/current thinking; synthesized the new information; and reapplied the information while connecting their experience as they traverse the TL process (Brookfield, 2009; Kramer, 2016; Mezirow, 1981). Students often experienced challenges confronting and critically evaluating their previous assumptions. Ginsberg et al. (2014) refers to these challenges as “pebble in the shoe” experiences and notes that they are the origin of TL (p. 190). Many of the students spoke of their newfound value in self-reflecting and becoming self-aware. Significantly, as the learner’s self-awareness is increased in this context of learning, they begin to undergo an important process of “fine-tuning and continued unfolding of self-knowledge” (Allen et al., 2022, p. 14). They also expressed a level of validation of who they currently are as individuals and as leaders, while simultaneously acknowledging that more learning, growth, development, and change are still necessary while on the trajectory to becoming effective leaders. TL theory, which seeks shifts in learner’s beliefs, attitudes, views, and actions (Mezirow, 2012), was evident in the students’ acknowledgements of new thinking, openness to new perspectives, mindset shifts, new behaviors, and the proposal or projection of new behaviors and actions. Importantly, all 19 students highlighted actual changes in their behavior or proposed changes that they would seek to make in the future (Dugan, 2017; Dugan & Humbles, 2018; Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020; Mezirow, 2012). Since the process of critical reflection directly aligns with the process of transformative learning, leadership educators seeking the transformation and development of and translation of theory into practice by those who participate in their leadership development courses should make guided CR an established, ongoing part of their curricula. Since students often will not find time to reflect on their own, including CR activities as part of graded assignments for courses should be the practice throughout the semester.
Changes or shifts in mindset, assumptions, perspectives, beliefs, and thinking were evident from the student reflections (Research Question 2). Carefully constructed guided questions were essential in leading the students to realize and express these shifts in thinking and highlight their deepened learning (Kim, 1999). It is important to note that the guided CRP is not for the facilitator but for the learners themselves. There is an awakening to or acknowledgement of outmoded information and new perspectives that becomes evident during the guided CRP. Further, self-assessments and other learning activities (Allen et al., 2022); time to reflect cognitively, verbally, and in writing (White & Guthrie, 2016); and dialogue in large and small groups for verbal reflection (Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020; Mezirow, 1981; Roberts, 2008; White & Guthrie, 2016) are vital to learning and development as outcomes in the leadership development process. These activities and experiences enhance and deepen learning; generate shifts in perspectives; increase self-awareness that is crucial to the development of leaders; and open the learner to continuously learning and being agile and ready for new information and change and for the VUCA environments in which they work. The success of the guided CR approach to learning should lead facilitators of learning to consider ways of learning that lead to the reflective competence that Rogers et al. (2013) highlight to support students continually examining of assumptions, beliefs, and gaps in knowledge. This should include a guided, structured approach to CR that involves continuous and purposeful questioning directing students’ thinking, regular journaling, ongoing self-reflection, a variety of self-assessments, one-on-one/small student group discussions, and individual and team projects that involve a reflective component throughout the semester.
Future studies should have the students reflect using a method that is fully anonymous without the involvement of grading. Note that this may reduce the number of students who complete the guided CRP. Future studies should also include a longitudinal component that calls for (a) students to review their reflections and evaluate their progress against those reflections, (b) narrative inquiry interviews with students to allow their further reflection on their progress against their written reflections, and (c) interviews with students’ coworkers and leaders or observations in their workspaces to evaluate their progress in development as effective leaders. Future studies could also examine CRP relative to other learning orientations. Finally, it should be noted that since this study is a case study involving a specific class of 19 leadership education students in a doctoral program, the results may not be generalizable across other classes or disciplines. Future studies could sample students across full programs or among students at various schools and disciplines.
Conclusion
Guided critical reflection is a crucial and useful pedagogical strategy for developing and transforming emerging leaders. When combined with other pedagogical strategies such as self-assessments and group dialogue or discourse, guided CR practices as part of regular graded assignments throughout the semester lead to the discovery of shifts and awakenings in student thinking and perspectives and drives the student to question their assumptions and beliefs which is the start of transformation. Importantly, the guided critical reflection process enables learners and educators to witness the crystallization of learning and transformation. The practice and process of critical reflection was aligned with the practice and process of transformative learning. This is in keeping with leadership development as an evolutionary or realization process where students construct or assemble and acknowledge the trajectory of their own leadership identity.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
