Issues and challenges for women in creating spaces at decision-making levels: A case study of Pakistan Muslim league-N

Abstract

In many Western and Asian countries, women’s empowerment has increased significantly, yet women are still underrepresented in political participation and political decision-making. This study explores the political engagement of women in a society that discriminates against them on the basis of their sex, and in a political system that is heavily patriarchal. The study is aimed at exploring the issues and challenges that women confront in political participation and decision-making in the party political space. To achieve this goal, a qualitative approach has been adopted, in which data has been collected and processed in a qualitative manner. This research conducts a case study of Pakistan Muslim League (N) which served as a sample for data collection. Thematic analysis has been used to decipher the comments of important stakeholders interviewed for qualitative data, as described by Braun and Clarke. Although literature has studied the complex of multiple interlinked causes for women’s insufficient and ineffective political participation, this article presents a novel way to explore those issues and a thematic way to understand their complexity. However, the study's findings indicate that women's political engagement and decision-making are hampered for a variety of reasons. A male-dominated culture, lack of social acceptance, structural halts, gender-imbalanced political parties, societal vulnerability threats and an inability to empower women are a few of the main concerns. Numerous specific problems have been identified as well, such as the persistence of historical patterns and the opportunity gap as well as psychological satisfaction and religious excuses for the lack of political participation and the vulnerability of being scandalized, weak economic status and gender sensitivity in the workplace. In Pakistani society, these highlighted variables are so firmly ingrained in the political and social structure that they are mostly taken for granted and go unnoticed.

Keywords

decision-making Pakistan Pakistan Muslim League (N)women

Introduction

Participation, professionalism and openness are all components of effective government (Mujani and Liddle, 2004). Participation is defined by researchers as a method by which individuals can express their views and have an impact on development activities (Arnstein, 1969; World Bank, 1996). Government processes should be open to everyone regardless of ethnicity, race or social group affiliation. Gender should also be taken into consideration (Fischer, 2012). However, women's engagement in politics continues to be undervalued (Abdullah, 2015). Politics has been seen as the domain of masculinity for a long time, and males have been expected to make the decisions and women have been expected to follow them. The cultural dimension theory of Hofstede (1967) is a well-known hypothesis that describes the connection between a society's culture and its individuals’ behaviour. Culture has an effect on individuals, which will in turn affect their conduct. The socioeconomic disparities and the influence of social structures on women's lives mean that the status of women in Pakistan varies widely among various classes. Systemic subordination is a fact of life for women in relation to men across all social strata, regions and the rural/urban split. The Constitution of Pakistan does not restrict the participation of women in politics; however, their representation in political parties is insignificant. Women make up 48 percent of Pakistan's population, yet they are underutilized because of their lack of education and political power. In order for a democratic system to function effectively, at least half of the population must participate (Ali and Akhtar, 2012; Zaslove et al., 2021).

Pakistan has a multiparty system, where a number for political parties contest for election. There are fewer major political parties; PML-N is one of them. It is a centre-conservative party and has ruled three times in the country. It was headed by Nawaz Sharif, who was dismissed by the Supreme Court during his last tenure. According to the 2014 PILDAT report (PILDAT, 2014), PML-N is the least democratic party in the country. The Central Working Committee (CWC) is the highest body of the party and makes the major decisions of the party. Surprisingly, the CWC has only 10% of women in its membership, which is far below half. Thus, there is a need to investigate what the challenges are that women face in moving up the hierarchy. Why are they under-represented and have weak political participation at decision-making levels? The research questions for the current study can be summarized as: To what extent do women play a role in political participation and decision-making in the political parties of Pakistan?

Driving questions

What are the issues that women face in political participation in the party political space?

What are the challenges faced by women in political decision-making in the political parties of Pakistan?

What are the previous failures or issues around the political empowerment of women in political parties?

How can the issues and challenges women face in political participation and decision-making in political parties be eradicated?

Review of the literature

Various studies and reports indicate that female political participation has been strengthened worldwide lately. As indicated by Inter Parliamentary Union (Kaufman, 2019) rankings, about 20 countries in the world have over 40% women in their administration, with Rwanda at the top with 61% of women in government. However, Pakistan is positioned 100th out of 193 nations, with only 20% of its parliament being women. The majority of studies are centred on growing the number of women in legislative roles instead of improving the quality of women’s political participation by analysing and resolving the issues faced by women who are currently in political positions. Although a large body of research has been done on the question of how to increase the ratio of women in political participation, there is an absence of investigation on the issues and difficulties that women experience when they are engaged with governmental issues, which hamper their meaningful political participation.

In the World Economic Forum's latest Global Gender Gap Index (GGI, 2022; World Economic Forum, 2022), Pakistan stands as the second lowest country in terms of gender balance, ranking 145 out of 146 states. For strengthening women’s overall political empowerment, political parties are key players and control designation processes and choose whether or not to utilize shares, and if amounts are executed, what kind of standards are utilized in the selection of candidates (Wide, 2006). Then again, as per Blair (1929), these political parties have been inadequate at reinforcing female inclusion in their political process, which ultimately restricts their general political support. Even places like America, Sacchet (2005) it has been found that women have less representation in political parties in case of Latin America, i.e. under 10% and just marginally higher in those parties where women are more noticeable. The quota system, Sacchet understood, was the essential driver. It is assumed that if more women are represented at decision-making levels in political parties then more women will get candidateship for election and their overall political participation will increase (Blomgren, 2010). Another way of putting it is that having more women will take an interest in the advisory groups that choose up-and-coming candidates and make key choices in the party, which improves the probability of women being chosen as competitors and eventually being part of the legislature. Thus, women will have a more prominent impact in government decision-making assuming they are all addressed in parliament. Besides, a review embraced by Mufford (2011) on the political commitment and decision-production of South Asian women, especially in political parties. According to him, the absence of women in politics is because of primary obstacles in the public arena, like a male-centric society (Mufti and Jalalzai, 2021) and women’s family liabilities. He additionally referred to joblessness as a contributing issue. He proceeded to express that in less-developed countries, women are bound to deal with family tasks and perform family commitments, passing on the financial and political domains to men. A review by the National Council on Social Welfare (NCSW) observed that political parties give tickets only to their own women relatives, while female party workers are neglected. The absence of intra-party democracy, as indicated by Bari (2000), has brought about a family-based and undemocratic party structure. Subsequently, women cannot play a part in the party's dynamic interaction. The circumstance of women’s political commitment has not changed, in spite of the enormous improvement that has been made in the political system and structure (Awan, 2016; ul ain Rana et al., 2022). Numerous social components in developing countries impact women's direction with regards to their cooperation in political dynamic positions, for example customary discernments about women as dynamic people and the dispersion of work among people. A review by McCarthy and Sultana (2004) uncovered that women's less and legitimate role at home, in society and at the state level keeps them from taking part in politics. so, women in Asia are a marginalized group in the political arena (Liu, 2022). It was accordingly accepted that a central point restricting women’s political commitment in Pakistan is the social privilege available to men. With regards to women taking part in legislative issues, Shvedova (2007) distinguished three significant hindrances: the male-dominated model of legislative issues, lack of party support, insufficient and ineffective effort of women’s associations; belief system and brain science, for example conventional orientation jobs and the insight that politics is a ‘dirty’ job of broad communications; and, lastly, financial obstacles that incorporate the ‘feminization’ of joblessness and neediness as well as the ‘dual burden’ of both. Thusly, Shvedova focuses on monetary boundaries as one reason why women are less inclined to take an interest in legislative issues. It is the basic design of Western man-centric culture, as per Jakobsh (2012), that men are unrivalled and all the more remarkable and that they address the ‘standard’, while women are seen as mediocre, ailing in power and independence and secondary in the public arena. As per Growe and Montgomery (1999), women are not appreciated if they strive for positions of authority. Female political interest has been explored by male analysts (Abdullah, 2015). As per their discoveries, men do not appreciate women in positions of authority. Women have to make compromises on their career to focus on their children. Due to unpaid maternity leave, women are forced to leave their jobs and to fully pay attention to their households (Ali and Akhtar, 2012). As indicated by Awour (2012), women's political leadership is affected by their marital status and educational fulfilment. For a woman to become a government official, she has to be economically empowered. Financial empowerment is a strong factor for women to enter into political life and helps to guarantee equivalent political association regardless of sex gender (Anigwe, 2014; Janusz et al., 2021). Many women’s desire for political office is impeded by an absence of resources such as monetary resources, as per Tundi (2015). Support for women in the political interaction requires enormous monetary assets. Funds, time, foundation and individuals are among the hardest assets to acquire. It has been observed that many religions around the world have contrasting impressions of women's role in society that are dynamically moderate or completely man-centric. A study by Wangila (2010) looks at the connections between religion and social values that impact women wanting to take part in politics. She found that religious clerics often mislead society by adding their own flavours to the religion which reinforce patriarchy. Summing up, the reviewed literature studied a complex of all these issues, from broader ones, like social, cultural, societal; to organizational, like intra-party democracy, gender orientation; to narrower, like family responsibilities, personal confidence and the courage contribute to women’s political participation and weak political decision-making.

Theoretical framework

In this article, feminist approaches have been considered as a mainstay in order to spotlight the issues and challenges of women's under-representation at decision-making levels in political parties. It was not until the late 1960s that feminism started to emerge thoroughly as a self-conscious theory in the USA (Echols, 1989). According to various strands of feminism, all kinds of oppression are the outcome of the patriarchal system, with patriarchy meaning the systems and structures that prop up the power of men over women (Walby, 1989). According to Hofstede's cultural dimension theory, masculinity comes with the following characteristics: distinct gender roles, assertive, and concentrated on material achievements and wealth-building. Femininity comes with the following characteristics: fluid gender roles, modest, nurturing and concerned with the quality of life. Lastly, Hofstede between 1967 and 1973 postulated that individuals learn and make perceptions and behaviours from their surroundings, which creates a culture. This means that there is a two-way relationship between individual perception/behaviours and culture, which reinforce each other. It is pertinent to study these behaviours and how they are linked to patriarchal culture in Pakistan.

The term participation in the current study can be explained by using various donor agencies like the World Bank and UNDP which have provided indicators of good governance, and participation is one of them. Participation means that all decisions meant for society at large should be taken based on equal participation from all segments of society including women. This serves as the main thrust of the investigation into why there is an under-representation of women in political decision-making even women constitute almost half the population.

Methodology

To address the research question, the study uses a qualitative technique to gain a more in-depth understanding of the issues. A qualitative method is recommended for dealing with issues relating to sociocultural, conventional or phenomenological reality. Because of the context and complexity of these study questions, a qualitative approach is chosen. It is argued that case studies are used to examine individuals, events, decisions, periods, initiatives, policies and organizations. The case study approach is chosen in accordance with the goals of this investigation, which have been outlined in previous sections. The current investigation focuses on a single political party, namely the PML (N). Purposive sampling as the sample strategy has been used in this investigation. Face-to-face interviews have been used to gather the majority of the data. Face-to-face interviews, are the best method for obtaining data from the tone, emotions and conduct of respondents. In-person interviews with a total of 10 participants from the most basic stakeholder groups have been undertaken. Guest et al. (2006) claim that saturation occurs in homogeneous groups when there are 10 individuals. Of the total 10 interviews conducted, five were with female and two with male party workers, and three were with PML-N-affiliated parliamentarians (two women and 1 man). Research publications, documents, party charters and committee reports have also been consulted to gather secondary data. The method developed by Braun and Clarke (2006) has been used to transcribe and evaluate in-depth interviews. This style of analysis is not tied to any one particular theoretical or epistemological framework, as is the case with other qualitative methods, such as phenomenological analysis and discourse analysis. Finding and developing patterns or themes from qualitative data is what we mean when we talk about doing a ‘thematic’ study. Due to the wide range of tasks involved in learning, this makes it a very adaptable strategy. Research questions and problems can be addressed by using themes and patterns that are noteworthy, fascinating and thought-provoking from the qualitative data that are discovered and developed in a thematic analysis. The process of summarizing and organizing data yields themes in each question for thematic analysis (Braun and Clark, 2006).

Analysis

Women's issues and challenges in creating spaces at political party leadership positions at higher levels were analysed using theme analysis, which is a method for interpreting qualitative data. Braun and Clarke (2006) provided a six-step framework for doing thematic analysis that is easy to follow (see Table 1 below). For the purposes of analysis, these procedures must be followed in the order listed above.

Table 1.

Braun and Clarke (2006) six-phased approach of thematic analysis.

Step 1: Become familiar with the data	Step 4: Review themes
Step 2: Generate initial codes	Step 5: Define themes
Step 3: Search for themes	Step 6: Write-up

Findings and discussion

RQ 1:

What are the issues women face in political participation in the party political space?

The issues that women confront or are likely to face in the party's political space are discussed in a thematic manner.

Theme 1

Culture of male dominance: Many societies' authority is based on a system of male domination, from morals, conventions and traditions to laws and official organizations like governments. Early in human history, it is thought that the concept of male domination was widely accepted and male dominance is widely debated by feminists and socialists (Khan and Imad, 2021). The mechanics of masculine power have a significant effect in shaping social norms of dominance. Feminists see patriarchal culture as a negative image in society. That difference in gender was found to be legitimated by orthodox religion, science, law and society's overall set of values, according to the findings. Every time an individual interacts with others, they are constantly being taught and reminded of the social norms that govern their behaviour. Formal and informal punishment or threat of punishment by those in authority develops gendered norms and expectations through informal gender-inappropriate behaviour by peers. Observation of historical patterns is an additional crucial factor. Men have traditionally been expected to make political decisions, while women have traditionally been expected to follow their orders. Society still places a high value on men's ability to make decisions. Despite an increase in the number of female legislators, they are still seen as an afterthought. The opportunity gap is the third most critical component in a male-dominated culture. It is a well-known fact that a good education is a prerequisite for nearly every career. Similarly, politics is a field that requires a high level of education and exposure. A member's voice is not heard if he or she is less educated, and thus women who have not had quality education will not be able to deliver what they should deliver in the workplace (Figure 1).

Theme 2

Lack of acceptance by the society

A general term for admiring someone in a specific situation is called acceptance. In a patriarchal society, a woman is expected to handle the household, but she is never encouraged to enter politics because of gendered vulnerability (Lazarus and Steigerwalt, 2018). According to the findings, the media tends to give more attention to male candidates, and their political parties tend to give less support to female candidates. It is imperative that women acquire more financing for their constituency; they must introduce more bills and resolutions; and their policies must be more sensitive to their constituents’ needs. In order for women to succeed in politics, they must do a better job of representing their constituency than men (Muhammad et al., 2022). Religious justifications were also shown to be a factor in a lack of social acceptance, according to the study. We live in a world where there is a wide range of religions, and where religious rituals have a significant impact on our daily lives. When it comes to women's roles in religion and society. It is argued that many of the world's most significant religions are conservative or patriarchal (Figure 1).

Theme 3

Systemic halts

The term ‘systemic halts’ is used to emphasize that women's engagement in political parties is hindered by reasons such as a lack of a women's movement, as well as a general lack of support from their families and the broader public. Findings suggest that political parties are made up of people from all over the country, thus they need the support of and to influence the vulnerable and unrepresented groups (e.g. women) in society. Strengthening women's groups (group theory by David Truman (Lavaque-Manty, 2006)) or creating wings exclusively for women's issues are two ways to do this. There must be a coordination of women groups in the party in order to ensure the successful participation of these associations, the findings show.

The following graphic (Figure 1) depicts the thematic map (interrelationship) of the major themes and subthemes.

RQ 2:

What are the challenges faced by women in political decision-making in political parties of Pakistan?

Theme 1

Imbalanced political parties (in terms of gender)

In a democratic setup, a political party represents all members of the community. In light of the fact that Pakistani culture is predominately male, it is no surprise that a strong feeling of masculinity may be detected in the answers of political parties. According to the findings, political parties have failed in their efforts to increase the representation of women in politics, as also identified by Mushtaq and Adnan (2022). A political party that has a low percentage of female members, as well as a rigid and less democratic structure, is male-oriented and masculine in nature. Female leaders are not mentally weakened; even an effective type of leadership called transformational leadership is associated with female traits of leading and decision-making. Gender-based preconceptions and stereotypes regarding women's leadership abilities are a constant onslaught, which are then translated into discriminatory norms and practices in areas such as recruiting and promotion, making them less prominent in political party establishments (Figure 2).

Theme 2

Leadership potential

This topic focuses on a person's ability to lead. Leadership potential is described by Korn and Ferry (2015: 1) as ‘the capacity and interest to develop the traits required for effective performance in progressively more challenging leadership responsibilities’. A woman must have some leadership qualities in order to be able to make good decisions. According to the responses of the participants, women lack the opportunities to build themselves in a way so as to hold positions of power in politics. However, the present debate in literature shows that an effective kind of leadership style (transformational leadership) matches with female traits of leading and decision-making. The three sub-themes of this primary subject are: opportunity gap, essential pre-requisites and deficiency. To paraphrase Robert Dubin (1968), motivation is the complicated combination of influences that starts and maintains an individual at work in an organization. To motivate someone is to move them to action and keep them going in the direction they have already started. According to Bari (2000), it is common for women to be discouraged from working outside in an area where they require regular encounters. This is why it is so important for women to have a high level of motivation and self-confidence in order to perform at their best. ‘Lack of resources and awareness’ was cited as one of the motivational gaps by the participants. When it comes to political power, one respondent said, ‘politics is the game of resources and money. If one does not have, he or she cannot establish his or her space’. A similar term, ‘first prerequisite of an effort’, is pre-requisites. Several participants believed that women need to improve their own self-confidence and persuasiveness in order to compete in a more competitive political arena. Respondent: ‘Until you are motivated and devoted by yourself, no one will create space for you. Further, if you’re on the menu, you’re not at the table’, according to her. A robust women's movement and the ability to demand equal opportunity is also critical, according to Kiamba (2008) (Figure 2).

Theme 3

Social vulnerability

Risk of exposure or mishap is a measure of a person's vulnerability. Naming this theme is based on the fact that, in a society like Pakistan, women are more susceptible to reputational harm and so tend to avoid being in public or on screen because they are afraid of being exposed to scandals. The phrase ‘reserve’ was used by a respondent, which indicates that women in political parties prefer to remain aloof and avoid taking part in decision-making. As a result, women's self-assurance is stifled by the paralysing effects of vulnerability (ul ain Rana et al., 2022). Scandalization refers to the spread of rumours or gossip as the result of an embarrassment to oneself or others. This is entirely a new issue that has been highlighted by the respondents. In a male-dominated society like Pakistan, women are more susceptible to being slandered because they are expected to protect the honour of their family. Another issue that contributes to women's social vulnerability is gender sensitivity, which means to be gender-sensitive while taking any form of action, whether it be a business decision or an emotional one. Researchers’ rationale for choosing the term ‘women's political participation’ is that women are the opposite of men, so they have to put in more effort to participate in the political process. One respondent said that ‘women require hypocritical praise to climb ahead in the hierarchy’, which conveyed the impression of using their gender as leverage in the political party. Furthermore, survival in a new environment necessitates compatibility in order to fit in. Since politics is considered a taboo topic for women in patriarchal societies like Pakistan, women are frequently discouraged from entering politics. It should also be noted that in a patriarchal society where women are pushed to be obedient while men are encouraged to be dominating, women have less motivation and desire to compete with men. These all contribute to a less-friendly atmosphere (Figure 2).

RQ 3:

What are the previous failures or issues towards the political empowerment of women in political parties?

Theme 1

Secondary role of women

Findings of the study supported the literature and general conception that women are treated as second-class citizens. ‘Regardless of how qualified a woman is, she is generally considered secondary’, one respondent said. She further argued that ‘From a child to an adult then to become a woman, a daughter is treated secondary in terms of her education, working and independence’. Thus, a culture of female bondage is created (Thoradeniya, 2021). This theme contains sub-themes; less adoration and a less viable environment. Admiration is a term used to address the possibility that women are regarded and valued by society. Shami (2009) contends in her recorded investigation of Pakistani women's political participation and commitment that the public authority has neglected to make motivators to urge women to defy the difficulties they face as they endeavour to arrive at more significant levels in their lives and advance their professions. Due to the Pakistani public's solid male-centric practices, many individuals, including the ones who answered, are hesitant to make a move on the side of women's strengthening. In certain professions, like those of teachers or doctors, women are appreciated, however in others, for example politics, they are viewed with scorn. As Nijat and Murtazashvili (2015) called attention to, women are still underrepresented in leadership roles. Men can deal with discussions in a world of politics, yet women are kept out of these issues and consequently are not given a significant job in the party. This should start at home. A respondent commented, ‘Women have not been able to create spaces in their household decision-making so how would they be able to create spaces in the decision-making level in politics?’. Thus, women require support at home before they can find lasting success at work. Also, the expression ‘similarity’ is used to mean a feeling of congruity and association between individuals of opposite sexes. To flourish, one should be viable with the general climate to fit in. Men are more regarded in a culture where this is the standard for most of families. ‘In a society where male members of the family enjoy more respect and trust, e.g. if man come late night nobody asks but if a woman get late everybody sees him with doubtful eyes’ (respondent's comment). As indicated by Ahmed (2018) and Awan (2016), women in the Pakistani man-centric culture are frequently deterred from entering into politics since the political circle is viewed as an incongruent space for them. Women are less spurred and keen on contending with men since they live in a male-dominant society where they are encouraged for being submissive while men are encouraged for being controlling (Figure 3).

Theme 2

Incapacities for empowering women

Incapacities are used to demonstrate the ‘failure and ineffectiveness’ of empowerment efforts for women. It is characterized by a lack of respect for women and a lack of attention to gender equality, as identified by ul ain Rana et al. (2022). Despite the fact that additional government entities exist to address issues relating to women's empowerment, such as the Provincial Commissions on the Status of Women and the Women Action Forum, the status of women in politics remains terrible, according to respondents. According to Ahmed (2018), citing World Economic Forum (WEF) research, four Muslim nations, including Pakistan, have the lowest performance in implementing policies that are suitable and effective for women. In order to achieve national growth, women's economic potential must be taken into account while formulating public policy. Women's input has historically been ignored when making big decisions, such as whether or not to marry, in a society dominated by men (Figure 3).

RQ 4:

How can the issues and challenges women face in political participation and the decision-making process in political parties be eradicated?

There are solutions to eliminate the obstacles and challenges that women face in participating in the political process and making decisions at the party level. There are three distinct proposals for addressing the concerns and challenges that women face in participating in politics and making political decisions (Figure 4).

Theme 1

Increasing women's potential

The majority of respondents agreed that the first step in addressing the challenges women must deal with when taking part in the political process is to improve the potential of women for effective political participation, such as their access to high-quality education, training and exposure to politics, as also stressed by Edwards (2022). Despite the fact that women's education has improved over the past few decades, there are certain professions in which women tend to study more, such as the teaching and medical fields, while in fields such as political science there are fewer women than men (Awour, 2012). Because of the disparity between men and women in terms of educational attainment, abilities and potential, a well-designed training programme can help women develop the necessary skills to become influential and effective leaders. The same can be said for a person's value and credibility, which can only be established through extensive training and exposure (Luciak, 2008). With the help of the media or by developing role models for women, we need to cultivate an interest in and awareness of politics among both men and women. Equal chances and proper training for women can be provided by the political party's administration by ensuring that women are given the same opportunities and training as men in order to compete in the political arena (Figure 4).

Theme 2

Maintaining gender-balanced political parties

Political parties are meant to represent the interests of society at large where almost half the Pakistani population is comprised of women, so, to represent society in a true latter and spirit, political parties must be gender balanced. Patriarchy is still prevalent in Pakistan, limiting women's access to clientelism (Mufti and Jalalzai, 2021). Just like men, women should be given equivalent chances to ascend the political ladder (Sacchet, 2005). As Blomgren (2010) commented, the first and essential need is to give suitable spaces to women in the political parties. Expanding women’s support in political parties is imperative to strengthen their overall political empowerment. Moreover, as per one respondent, a method for strengthening women’s representation in political parties is to make the parties more flexible in their structure, to make more space for newcomers. Similarly encouraging and empowering women’s groups in these parties is another way. By making women as strong and convincing as men, Mufford (2011) says, the equal representation in political parties can be ensured. This cannot be accomplished until the women’s wings and affiliations are supported and empowered in parties. One interviewee expressed that, ‘there is lack of coordination and integration of women pressure groups in political parties to influence a decision’, which is an indication of the insufficiency of women’s groups to protect the interests of women in politics, and that this must be accomplished through coordination of women in the party (Figure 4).

Theme 3

Supporting role of government

We all know that governments exist to serve the people. According to the World Bank's (1996) definition of good governance, one of the qualities of good governance is fairness and equality, therefore the government has specific responsibilities to ensure that all citizens have equal access to government services. Gender policies must be re-examined in terms of implementation as well as new policies aimed at achieving equality between women and men, i.e. measures that effectively empower women politically. For example, encouraging women's mobility for education, jobs or for advancing their career opportunities is imperative. Rahman and Thompson (2022) in their Pakistan-based study indicate that the steps to strengthen women's political participation in developing democracies need to be reinforced by women's mobility. In addition, a policy will have no impact unless it is adequately funded. Ahmed (2018) argued that the government has to raise more money for women's issues. Women's centres, according to a high-ranking party member, are needed to address women's issues such as health, harassment and injustice so that they can be inspired and confident enough to fight for their own interests. If the government does not play a supportive role, she claimed, political parties will stay male-centric (Figure 4).

Consolidate thematic map

In this diagram, (Figure 5) major and minor themes are depicted as well as their interconnections. On the right side, research questions are arranged in a vertical column, while themes and sub-themes relating to each research question are arranged horizontally.

Conclusion

This study concluded that women’s weak political participation stems from a range of interrelated issues. The range of variables slowing down the progression of women in political decision-making can be viewed as macro-meso-micro-level issues such as societal, structural and psychological issues. Moreover, the issues vary in their extent based on the different context, status and background of the respondents. However, women parliamentarians have addressed in the interview that they don’t face much hindrance in voicing their opinions in legislative issues. However, the party labourers underscored more significant themes like the male-arranged society, adequacy and under-representation of women at parties’ apex echelons. Likewise, male interviewees’ responses also varied from those of female interviewees. Female respondents talked about ingrained gender inequality and gender discrimination, while male respondents discussed women’s supposed inadequacies as leaders or decision-makers. Against this backdrop, the range of issues have been drawn and linked with each other in a thematic manner to make them more understandable (Figure 5). Nonetheless, this study enhances earlier examinations by giving a more complete comprehension of the causal components connected with women to create spaces at decision-making levels in politics and political parties.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article

ORCID iD

Azeem Gul

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