Examining the Relationship Between School Counselors’ Age,Years of Experience,School Setting,and Self-Perceived Transformational Leadership Skills

Abstract

This study examined influential factors in the development of transformational leadership skills of school counselors who are the members of the American School Counselor Association. Using multiple regression with a sample of 102 practicing school counselors, we examined the influence of age and/or years of experience to self-perceived transformational leadership skills. Results indicated no significance between age and self-perceived transformational leadership scores, but they showed a negative correlation between years of experience and transformational leadership. We discuss implications for counselor educators and school counselor leaders.

Keywords

school counseling transformational leadership school setting

Transformational leadership is a unique way of looking at leadership in relation to school counseling and comprehensive school counseling programs (Dollarhide, 2003; Dollarhide, Gibson, & Saginak, 2008). Transformational leadership is not the same model as transformative leadership in which leaders begin with questions of social justice to guide their leadership goals (Shields, 2010; Young & Bryan, 2015). Transformational leadership involves interaction between leaders and followers, so that both parties become highly motivated toward working on shared goals (Miller, Marchel, & Gladding, 2010). Transformational leaders immerse themselves into the needs and desires of others in such a highly motivating way that the result is transformation of their followers and team members.

Transformational leaders immerse themselves into the needs and desires of others in such a highly motivating way that the result is transformation of their followers and team members.

Making the decision to become a leader as a school counselor is a long-term investment, and school counselors have to actively employ transformational leadership skills to inspire others to make school-wide changes. The first purpose of this study was to examine influential factors in the development of transformational leadership skills of school counselors who are American School Counselor Association (ASCA) members. No research has yet been conducted to measure the correlation of transformational leadership skills of school counselors and their age, years of experience, school setting, and leadership in a professional organization. The second purpose of this study was to determine whether school counselors can possess transformational leadership skills as a young adult versus an older adult and whether years of experience have positive or adverse effects on the development of transformational leadership skills as measured by the School Counseling Transformational Leadership Inventory (Gibson, Dollarhide, Conley, & Lowe, 2017). Before discussing transformational leadership in the school counseling profession, we first discuss school counselors as leaders. This information adds to a growing body of literature on factors that influence leadership development of school counselors.

School Counselors as Leaders

School counselors are leaders of their school counseling programs, and as such, they have the role of addressing issues of today’s schools (Dollarhide, 2003). Leadership is often defined as the ability to lead and the capacity to be a leader (ASCA, 2012; Schwallie-Giddis, ter Maat, & Pak, 2003) and has been addressed in a variety of disciplines (Dollarhide, 2003). Leadership requires long-term commitment and long-range view for the future (Dollarhide et al., 2008). The ASCA (2012) National Model stresses the importance of school counselors engaging in leadership and advocacy for the school counseling profession. However, although many counselor education programs address the importance of leadership, few offer courses that require development of leadership skills (Mason & McMahon, 2009).

Although many counselor education programs address the importance of leadership, few offer courses that require development of leadership skills.

For today’s school counselor, accountability in the profession is especially important to validate the counselor’s roles and responsibilities (Dollarhide et al., 2008; Mason & McMahon, 2009; Pyne, 2011; Schwallie-Giddis et al., 2003; Shillingford & Lambie, 2010). Clerical and administrative tasks continue to consume too much time (Clemens, Milsom, & Cashwell, 2009; Dollarhide, 2003). Therefore, school counselors should add accountability skills to their repertoire for their school improvement leadership to be sustainable (Sink, 2009). Advocates for the school counseling profession must continuously examine and promote the effectiveness of their role in the school system and of their work in relationship to the ASCA National Model (Mason & McMahon, 2009; Young & Bryan, 2015). Becoming a leader within the school and getting other stakeholders involved will help school counselors promote their own program, so their duties do not get stretched in other directions. School counselors seem to have an advantage in developing leadership skills, according to Clemens, Milsom, and Cashwell (2009), because they can utilize the skills that are part of their training and expertise (i.e., active listening skills, fostering rapport). School counselors have been called natural leaders based on their unique role in the school system, training, and skills (Janson, Stone, & Clark, 2009). They can use their leadership abilities to gain trust, build relationships, and enhance communication (Dollarhide et al., 2008). Thus, school counselors can use their leadership abilities to “enhance the academic achievement of students, facilitate educational reform, and increase the effectiveness of their school counseling programs” (Janson et al., 2009, p. 100). Several leadership styles have potential for school counselors’ use to promote their school counseling programs including transformational leadership (Dollarhide, 2003; Dollarhide et al., 2008; Schwallie-Giddis et al., 2003; West, Bubenzer, Osborn, Paez, & Desmond, 2006).

Transformational Leadership

As stated above, transformational leadership is the interaction in which leaders inspire followers to become highly motivated toward working on a shared goal (Miller et al., 2010). Thus, transformational leaders instill leadership in others and help them grow professionally. Counselor educators hope to produce transformational leaders as effective school counselors who make the best and most effective judgments for their students and school. School counselors often have the role of addressing issues (e.g., student learning outcomes, college, and career opportunities) in today’s schools and, as such, should be viewed as leaders of their school counseling programs (Dollarhide, 2003).

Bolman and Deal’s (2008) transformational leadership model presents four contexts in which an aspiring leader should attempt to operate: structural leadership, human resource leadership, political leadership, and symbolic leadership. Bolman and Deal (2008) posit that leaders do not have to incorporate all four contexts into their leadership style at once but can work to solidify one before moving on to the other three contexts of transformational leadership. Structural leadership refers to the structure of the organization. For example, the structure of school leadership could be a principal, assistant principal, counselors, and other faculty and staff. Human resource leadership incorporates the empowerment and inspiration of others. Political leadership is the use of organizational or interpersonal power and is often self-evident in school systems as individuals attempt to move “up the ladder” within the organization. Last, symbolic leadership refers to how the leader and followers interpret the meaning of change in the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Dollarhide, 2003).

Transformational Leadership and the School Counselor

School counselors have been trained to increase the trust of others and enhance communication, qualities that are crucial for leaders (Dollarhide et al., 2008; Mason & McMahon, 2009; Meany-Walen, Carnes-Holt, Barrio Minton, Purswell, & Pronchenko-Jain, 2013; Shillingford & Lambie, 2010). The skills that counselors embody, such as counseling, consulting, teaching, advocacy, and research, link specifically to transformational leadership (Dollarhide, 2003; Dollarhide et al., 2008; Mason & McMahon, 2009). This is fundamental in school counseling programs because a leader’s unique set of skills are necessary to implement the ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2012) and abandon the administrative tasks that are often given to school counselors (Shillingford & Lambie, 2010). Furthermore, school counselors are trained in facilitating relationships with stakeholders, building trust and rapport, and enhancing communication—all leadership activities that aid in progress toward the common goal of helping students become constant learners and fruitful citizens (Dollarhide et al., 2008; Mason & McMahon, 2009). The ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2012) is a guide for all school counselors, in all settings and populations, to meet the needs of students in a flexible and adaptable way. To use this model to its full potential, a school counselor will have to motivate stakeholders (e.g., other school counselors, administrators, faculty, parents, and community members) to move toward a comprehensive program that implements systemic change, advocacy, leadership, and collaboration (Schwallie-Giddis et al., 2003). Transformational leadership incorporates the motivation and inspiration of others to work toward a cohesive goal (Mason & McMahon, 2009; Shillingford & Lambie, 2010). School counselors can use these unique skills and motivate followers to become leaders themselves and to work toward bettering not only the school counseling program to meet all needs of the students but also the school as a whole.

To implement the ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2012) in school counseling programs, school counselors must have leadership abilities that facilitate change (Dollarhide, 2003; Dollarhide et al., 2008; Schwallie-Giddis et al., 2003; Shillingford & Lambie, 2010; West et al., 2006). ASCA (2012) expects counselor educators to produce effective leaders, but information on how leadership develops is vital to helping future counselors obtain the needed skills. Hence, the purpose of this study was to determine the role that various factors (e.g., counselor’s age, experience, school setting) play in the development of transformational leadership skills. As such, we examined two research questions:

Research Questions: What is the relationship between a school counselor’s years of experience, age, and self-perceived transformational leadership skills as measured by the School Counselor Transformational Leadership Inventory (SCTLI; Gibson et al., in press)?

Research Questions: Among school counselors in school settings, what differences, if any, exist between the self-perceived transformational leadership abilities of those who have held leadership positions in professional organizations and those who have not, as measured by the SCTLI (Gibson et al., in press)?

Method

Prior to beginning the study, we obtained institutional review board approval. We focused the current analysis of transformational leadership on the constructs of counselors’ age, years of experience, school setting, and leadership in professional organizations.

Participants

The population for this study included members of the ASCA networking site, ASCA Scene. We sent an initial e-mail to 500 randomly selected ASCA members inviting their participation in the study, then sent two follow-up e-mails at 2-week intervals. After 4 weeks had passed, we invited an additional 500 randomly selected ASCA members to complete the survey. This resulted in 102 ASCA members completing the survey, a response rate of 10.2%. Of the 102 participants, the average age was 44 years with an average of 14 years of experience. In regard to gender, 89% (n = 91) of the participants identified as female and 11% (n = 9) identified as male. Two individuals did not report gender. When asked for cultural self-identification, 85% (n = 87) of the respondents reported that they were Caucasian/White, 7% (n = 7) identified themselves as African American, 6% (n = 6) identified as Hispanic/Latino, and 2% (n = 2) identified as Asian. Participants were practicing school counselors or had held a job in school counseling during the past 5 years. Participants were current ASCA members, which allowed them to create an account within the ASCA Scene website.

Study participantes also reported the school setting in which they worked. Participants who worked in a high school setting comprised 30% (n = 31) of the sample, followed by 23% (n = 23) from middle schools, and 34% (n = 35) from elementary schools; 13% (n = 13) selected the option “other.” Participants who selected other as their school setting identified workplaces such as K–8, K–12, adult education, and district level. We also asked participants to indicate whether they held a leadership position in a professional counseling organization. Of the participants, 40% (n = 41) responded they had held or currently hold a leadership position and 60% (n = 61) responded they have not held a leadership position in a professional counseling organization. Based on these responses, 61% of high school counselors, 19% of middle school counselors, 34% of elementary school counselors, and 31% of other respondents have held a leadership position in a professional organization. Regarding participants’ interest level in learning more about their leadership style, 41% (n = 43) rated themselves as having a high interest, 52% (n = 54) indicated moderate interest, and 5% (n = 5) indicated not much interest. We also asked participants to indicate the level to which they saw themselves as a leader; 47% (n = 48) highly saw themselves as a leader, 45% (n = 46) moderately saw themselves as a leader, and 8% (n = 8) did not see themselves as a leader.

Instrumentation

Demographic questionnaire

The demographic questionnaire consisted of 10 questions asked of all eligible participants. In addition to age, years of experience, and school setting, participants identified prior and/or current leadership positions and if they considered themselves a leader. The data analysis portion of the study took into account the answers of the demographic questionnaire.

SCTLI

The SCTLI (Gibson et al., in press) is a 15-item inventory that measures school counseling transformational leadership skills and attitudes. These skills and attitudes include (a) the ability to empathize, (b) the ability to energize and motivate coworkers and constituents and be responsive to them, (c) the ability to communicate a vision through various methods, and (d) the ability to create a team atmosphere in setting goals and objectives for the school counseling program. Participants respond to questions on a 5-point Likert-type scale and receive a total score that indicates the self-reported level of engagement in overall leadership. The score provides guidance regarding school counselors’ frequency in engaging in leadership skills and attitudes within the school counselor role and focus.

To test the construct validity of the SCTLI, Gibson, Dollarhide, Conley, and Lowe (in press) used an exploratory factor analysis (n = 217) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; n = 676) with school counselors who were ASCA members with no overlap in samples. Overall fit indices for the CFA indicated a one-factor model of transformational leadership skills and attitudes based on transformational leadership theory and roles as delineated within the ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2012; CFI = .94, TLI = .93, RMSEA = .08). When assessing the scale for internal consistency, the 15-item model of the SCTLI had a Cronbach’s α of .94. The SCTLI demonstrated concurrent validity with the Transformational Leadership Questionniare (Gibson et al., in press; MySkills Profile, 2010). In the current research study, the SCTLI demonstrated acceptable reliability, .92.

Data Analysis and Results

Prior to analyzing data, we tested for assumptions, missing data, and outliers. No assumption violations existed; no missing data or outliers were present. The data analysis and assumptions to answer each research question are as follows.

Research Question 1

To test the first research question, we ran a hierarchical multiple regression. Participants’ total SCTLI score served as the dependent variable, while participants’ age and years of experiences served as the independent, predictor variables. Results of the Pearson correlation are presented in Table 1. No significant correlation existed between age and SCTLI score. However, results showed a significant negative correlation between years of experience and the SCTLI score, indicating that when school counselor’s years of experience increased, their perceived transformational leadership decreased.

Table 1.

Pearson Correlations for SCTLI, Age, and Years of Experience.

Predictor	Age in Years	Years of Experience
Total SCTLI score	.080	−.231*
Age in years	1	.217
Years of experience		1

Note. SCTLI = School Counselor Transformational Leadership Inventory.

*Significance at α, p < .05.

The multiple regression model included two predictor variables, age and years of experience. Model 1 included age only and did not reach significance. Model 2 included age and years of experience and reached significance accounting for 7.1% of the overall variance in SCTLI scores. See Table 2 for inferential statistics. Results suggest that school counselors’ years of experience is a unique predictor of SCTLI scores, accounting for 5.2% of the variance, and that for every 1 year of experience, a .261 drop occurs in the SCTLI score.

Table 2.

Predicting Relationship Between Age and Years of Experience.

Predictor		ΔR ²	β	p
1	Age	.081	.80	.803
2	Age	.138	.137	1.376
2	Years of experience	−.324	−.261	−2.629^a

^a Statistical significance at the .05 level.

Research Question 2

To test the second research question, we ran a two-way analysis of variance and analyzed differences between the two independent variables (school setting and leadership experience) and the dependent variable (SCTLI score). We conducted preliminary analyses to ensure no violation of assumptions.

The main effect for the counselor’s school setting on self-perceived transformational leadership abilities did not produce statistically significant results, F(1, 102) = 1.753, p = .161. The main effect for the counselor’s leadership experience on self-perceived transformational leadership abilities yielded statistically significant results, F(1, 102) = 6.99, p = .010. Results indicated a medium effect size for leadership experience with η² = .069. No significant interaction effect existed, F(1, 102) = .026, p = .994, between school setting and leadership experience. Therefore, school counselors who reported previous leadership experience also reported significantly higher transformational leadership skills than those who did not have leadership experience.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to measure the self-perceived transformational leadership skills of school counselor members of ASCA. The study took into account age, years of experience, school setting (i.e., elementary, middle, or high school), and leadership in professional organizations. Previous research has explored transformational leadership across disciplines on how to evolve into a transformational leader (Dollarhide, 2003; Dollarhide et al., 2008; Mason & McMahon, 2009; Sagnak, 2010; Seidman & McCauley, 2011; Shillingford & Lambie, 2010; Weichun, Sosik, Riggio, & Yang, 2012; Young & Bryan, 2015). For counselor educators to better help counselors in training find their professional identity and for school counselors to understand and enhance factors that may influence their leadership development (Lewis & Borunda, 2006), knowing the overall impact of age and years of school counseling experience on development of self-perceived transformational leadership skills is helpful (Mason & McMahon, 2009).

Results of the current study indicated that age does not have a direct role in the development of self-perceived transformational leadership skills. School counselors have the ability to develop transformational leadership skills regardless of age, but after many years of experience, transformational leadership skills decrease, results showed. These skills are vital as school counseling students graduate and begin jobs that require implementing and/or maintaining the ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2012) within their schools; using transformational leadership skills will aid in this process (Dollarhide, 2003; Dollarhide et al., 2008; Mason & McMahon, 2009; Shillingford & Lambie, 2010). To develop or maintain these skills, school counselors can attend professional development opportunities regarding transformational leadership and connect with mentors who are transformational leaders (Dollarhide et al., 2008; Mason & McMahon, 2009). School counselors will need to revisit transformational leadership to reinforce their use of transformational leadership skills to promote their school counseling programs and to act as a role model for new school counselors beginning their careers.

School counselors have the ability to develop transformational leadership skills regardless of age, but after many years of experience, transformational leadership skills decrease, results showed.

Experienced counselors need to be cognizant of the potential decline in transformational leadership and work proactively to keep their skills sharp to maintain comprehensive school counseling programs. New practitioners can better develop transformational leadership skills if they anticipate potential obstacles such as burnout, fatigue, and complacency and are prepared to actively build knowledge and skills in becoming a transformational leader. Counselor educators in training programs can encourage students to attend professional conferences and run for leadership positions (Mason & McMahon, 2009). Counselor educators can also implement leadership practices into their curriculum (Shillingford & Lambie, 2010).

Conversely, school counselors’ leadership experience did influence transformational leadership. Experienced counselors are in a unique position to share their experience and knowledge with new school counselors and can do this by serving on leadership boards. This fulfills a dual purpose: (a) to continue their own leadership growth and (b) to help foster leadership skills in new school counselors and counselors in training. New counselors can become involved in leadership as soon as possible to begin fostering leadership development and to make connections with other leaders in the field (Mason & McMahon, 2009). School counselor trainees should be exposed to the importance of serving in leadership positions in professional organizations early in their careers to foster growth in transformational leadership skills (Dollarhide et al., 2008; Shillingford & Lambie, 2010). The information gathered from this study can aid counselor educators in incorporating discussions into the curriculum to help counseling students gain a better understanding of the obstacles that could impede their leadership development that they could face as a school counselor.

School counselors’ leadership experience did influence transformational leadership. Experienced counselors are in a unique position to share their experience and knowledge with new school counselors and can do this by serving on leadership boards.

Implications

The knowledge obtained from the current study has implications for practice, training, and future research. Practitioners, whether early or late in their career, are tasked with the responsibility of implementing or maintaining a comprehensive school counseling program that meets the needs of all students. Transformational leadership is an effective way to inspire others to work toward the common goal of aiding in the success of all students. Therefore, staying abreast of the continuation of transformational leadership development is imperative as practitioners approach tenure in their careers and take part in leadership opportunities with local and national organizations. Awareness of potential factors that affect the development of transformational leadership skills can provide ideas for outreach, professional development, and topics of discussion for doctoral students in counselor education programs to use with their future students. This study’s implications for future research include understanding why a decline in leadership occurs with experienced counselors. For example, a researcher could gather data to determine whether burnout over time is a potential contributing factor to a lower level of self-perceived transformational leadership abilities of school counselors with more years of experience. More research is also warranted on expanded demographics from subjects regarding gender, ethnicity, region, socioeconomic status, and training and their impact on SCTLI scores. Questions regarding mentoring and advocacy experience would also provide insight on SCTLI scores.

Limitations

The limitaions of a research study can alter the outcome and deduction drawn from the data. In this study, we requested demographic information from participants, but the study does not directly take into account geographic region, gender, ethnicity, or training. All of these variables could confound the results. Another important aspect is identifying differences such as gender and ethnicity within the sample that affect its ability to represent the population. Although we used random sampling from the ASCA Scene database to include subjects from various regions, ethnicities, and backgrounds, 85% of the participants identified as Caucasian/White, which means only 15% of the sample was drawn from the minority population. Furthermore, 89% of the sample identified themselves as female. The overrepresentation of White females makes it more difficult to draw conclusions about the self-perceived leadership across ethnicity and gender.

Conclusions

Recent research suggested that transformational leadership is an ideal model of leadership because it relates directly to the skills school counselors already possess (Dollarhide, 2003; Dollarhide et al., 2008; Mason & McMahon, 2009; Shillingford & Lambie, 2010). The current study acts as a beginning point from which we can better understand the factors that potentially affect the development of transformational leadership skills. We now know that age makes no difference in the level of self-perceived leadership development, but school counselors who have many years of experience report a lower level of self-perceived transformational leadership abilities. We also know that serving in leadership positions for professional organizations has a significant impact on self-perceived transformational leadership skills.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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