K–12 School Counselors Utilizing Critical Race Theory to Support the Racial Identity Development and Academic Achievement of African American Males

Abstract

This article examines the role of racial identity development in the academic achievement of African American adolescent males. Through the lens of critical race theory (CRT), we highlight how K–12 school counselors may support and enhance the schooling experiences of African American males by understanding and acknowledging how racial identity development may impact academic achievement. A focus on CRT in education emphasizes the continual persistence of racism ingrained in K–12 education located within the educational opportunities, curriculum, representation, and teacher perception of African American males. We offer insight into how school counselors may work to decrease barriers to achievement by analyzing the effect race and gender have on the identification, retention, and underachievement of their African American male students.

Keywords

African American males critical race theory K–12 racial identity development school counseling

Despite recent academic gains by African American students enrolled in U.S. schools, African American males continue to underachieve in comparison to their White counterparts (de Brey et al., 2019; Howard, 2008). Although the gap between African American and White students’ test scores narrowed between the years 1990 and 2013, the gap remains huge and permeates not only test scores but also retention rates, high school graduation rates, and advanced placement course taking by African American students (de Brey et al., 2019). For example, by eighth grade, reading scores differ by 30 points and math scores by 32 points between African American and White students (de Brey et al., 2019). These statistics are especially startling, given the disproportionate number of African American males in special education and the lack of African American males in gifted education in elementary and secondary schools (de Brey et al., 2019; Ford & Moore, 2013; Irving & Hudley, 2008).

African American adolescent males face unique and challenging barriers that undermine their academic potential, thereby decreasing their opportunity to achieve success in academic settings (Ellis et al., 2018; St. Mary et al., 2018). This pattern of underachievement manifests itself in poor grades, lack of motivation, inappropriate classroom behavior, low graduation rates (Irving & Hudley, 2008), and low effort (Ford & Moore, 2013). In addition to the historical barriers faced by their African American female peers, African American males confront another set of barriers due to the complex intersections of race and gender (Irving & Hudley, 2008). These barriers include interpersonal challenges (i.e., peer affiliation and acceptance, social injustices, parental support, and teacher perception) and intrapersonal challenges (i.e., racial identity development, self-perception, and self-acceptance). A lack of achievement often categorizes African American males as at risk in educational systems and pathologizes them as unmotivated learners (Bonner et al., 2008). Deficit labeling begins in prekindergarten and follows these young men through high school and into the workforce or higher education.

School failure among African American males continues to persist despite the multitude of interventions implemented to rectify this disenfranchisement (Howard, 2008). K–12 school counselors are constantly looking for strategies and answers to disrupt the persistent underachievement of African American males, and racial identity development may explain this underachievement phenomenon. Personal identity includes the structures of the self (i.e., self-concept, self-esteem, interpersonal confidence, racial identity, and awareness) and group orientation (i.e., race esteem, race image, racial self-identification; Plummer, 1995). Few empirical research studies have explored the relationship between the racial identity development of African American males and academic achievement. However, because racial identity is a construct of group orientation and acceptance, which influences self-concept, it is worthy of consideration as it relates to underachievement among African American males.

Critical race theory (CRT) posits that labeling African American males as underachievers is a direct effect of the pervasive structure of institutional racism engrained in American society (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). CRT presents an appropriate theoretical foundation for educators to conceptualize how the intersections of race and gender influence academic testing, teacher perception, curriculum bias, and classroom structure (Delgado & Stefanic, 2001; Rodríguez & Greer, 2017). Historically, African American male students encounter barriers to their achievement that manifest as constructs of CRT, including essentialism, microaggressions, and White privilege (Rodríguez & Greer, 2017). Providing these students with the opportunity to voice their negative schooling experiences through the counter-storytelling method of CRT gives them a forum to discuss race and gender that many students have not experienced in their schools (Howard, 2008; Moss & Singh, 2015). School counselors may consider CRT as a theoretical framework to analyze the effect race has on the identification, retention, and underachievement of African American males while providing students with a platform to discuss the role of race and racism in their schooling experiences (Moss & Singh, 2015).

School counselors have identified underachievement as a critical area of concern over the last several decades (Ellis et al., 2018; Ford & Harris, 1995; Ford & Moore, 2013). However, underachievement among our nation’s African American males is at the forefront of developmental and comprehensive school counseling programs because these students continue to exist on the margins in public school settings (Ellis et al., 2018; Ford & Harris, 1995; Ford & Moore, 2013). To provide equity and access for marginalized, underachieving African American male students, school counselors in K–12 settings should lead the charge to create interventions that increase the motivation, retention, and achievement of these young men (Bryan et al., 2012). Our purpose in this article is to enhance the understanding of racial identity development as a potential factor in the academic achievement of African American adolescent male students. We assert that this intentional focus viewed through the theoretical lens of CRT may enhance the understanding and development of student-centered and school-wide targeted interventions provided by school counselors.

Review of the Literature

Race and gender disparities in educational achievement, equity, and access are not new issues in the U.S. education system. The intersecting variables of racial identity development status, ethnic and racial background, gender identity, and socioeconomic class status are all cultural lenses through which educators, including school counselors, experience their students (Bryan et al., 2012). Considering how such variables affect their perceptions of their students and academic decisions within the public education system is imperative for educators (Bryan et al., 2012).

The Underachievement of African American Male Students

A multitude of statistics illuminate the persistence of the academic underachievement of African American males (de Brey et al., 2019). African American students’ school performance is, on average, lower than that of their White peers (Ellis et al., 2018). This persistent underachievement is especially evident in African American males (de Brey et al., 2019; Hilton & Bonner, 2017). de Brey and colleagues (2019) term this discrepancy in achievement as an achievement gap: “Achievement gaps occur when one group of students outperforms another group and the difference in average scores for the two groups is statistically significant.” Presenting data from the 2010–2011 academic school year, Vanneman et al. (2009) reported that White students scored at least 26 points higher than African American students on all assessments. This achievement gap is evident through all levels of education beginning in elementary school; however, the gap widens even further in middle school (Voight et al., 2015). The conclusions from the study suggest that a relationship exists between student achievement and various background factors (de Brey et al., 2019). However, this relationship may be due to any number of extraneous variables including race and gender, which are the focus of this article.

The literature suggests that African American males face exclusive barriers within educational systems (Bruce et al., 2009; Ellis et al., 2018; Howard, 2008) due to their overrepresentation in special education (Moore et al., 2008), excessive discipline referrals, poor grades, and low graduation rates (Ellis et al., 2018; Ford et al., 2002). They experience negative school experiences at higher rates than African American females and White students overall (Voight et al., 2015). In 2015, African American males comprised 15% of the nation’s K–12 population but represented 44% of the total incarcerated youth (Sickmund et al., 2017). A 2015 report by the Schott Foundation for Public Education (2015), Black Lives Matter: The Schott 50 State Report on Public Education and Black Males, revealed that the extent to which Black Males are overlooked is unjustifiable concerning equity within the public education system. These startling statistics give credence to the importance of acknowledging the negative effect school failure has on the future of African American males and society as a whole, such as the disparity in graduation rates between Black and White males reaching 21% in the 2012–2013 academic year. According to a 2011 Bureau of Justice Statistics report, approximately 3.1% of Black males in the nation were in state or federal prison in 2010 compared to just under 0.5% of White males and 1.3% of Hispanic males. Moreover, an estimated 7.3% of all Black males aged 30–34 had an incarceration sentence of more than 1 year. This preponderance of evidence is an example of the direct correlation between the academic failure of African American males and their quality of life after an unsuccessful school experience (Howard, 2008).

A report from de Brey et al. (2019) indicated that only 21% of African American males graduate from college in 4 years in comparison to 45% of their White peers. Although this may be attributed to many factors, statistics reveal that equity and access play a substantial role. The U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights (2014) found that African American students are less likely to have access to preparatory coursework for college and that underrepresentation persists when students do have access to advanced courses. Due to prior underachievement and the systemic failure of African American male students, many of these young men are disengaged in their education and experience low self-esteem and self-concept (Irving & Hudley, 2008). Eventually, academic disenfranchisement leads to limited career and social opportunities, resulting in a poor quality of life for African American males (Schott, 2015).

In a growing number of educational research studies, the researchers not only seek to understand the academic underachievement of African American males in U.S. K–12 schools but also look for possible interventions to improve the academic success and outcome experiences of these students (Ford & Moore, 2013; Hopkins & Garret, 2010). These studies include perspectives on the underrepresentation of African American males in gifted programs and implications for shifting the narrative (Ford & Moore, 2013; Hopkins & Garret, 2010), expanding literature to incorporate the voices of African American males and their lived experiences in academic inequality (Rodríguez & Greer, 2017), and increasing the self-efficacy and success of African American males in K–12 settings and beyond (Hilton & Bonner, 2017; St. Mary et al., 2018).

As we have described, African American students are known to be at a great disadvantage in obtaining equity in education, often facing major obstacles (Diemer et al., 2016). However, cultural factors, such as a sense of community and family dynamics, are not taken into consideration when addressing the underachievement of African American males (St. Mary et al., 2018). Implications such as these are significant, yet research continues to primarily highlight racial disparities as the logic behind educational issues (St. Mary et al., 2018). Many African American males reside in impoverished communities that lack necessary resources and are enrolled in schools that face these same disparities (Uwah et al., 2008). Studies with African American male students reveal the need for school counselors to increase their visibility and rapport, advocate for marginalized students, and better understand students’ individual needs (Henfield, Moore, & Wood, 2008). Viewing the underachievement of African American males from an ecological standpoint may greatly contribute to identifying and addressing gaps in education (Uwah et al., 2008). Furthermore, seeking an understanding of the experience African American males face in their academic careers warrants further consideration as it relates to their identity development.

Racial Identity Development of African American Males

Researchers cite numerous factors to explain the underachievement of African American males, including psychological and social factors such as low motivation and effort, low teacher expectations (Irving & Hudley, 2008), dissonance between home and school (Cokley et al., 2011), curriculum and assessment bias (Stambaugh & Ford, 2015), and cultural factors related to race and identity (Cokley et al., 2011). Adolescence is a time when young people begin to question and establish their identity within the context of race, gender, and social–cultural norms. For students of color, this identity development includes racial identity development. Plummer (1995) defined racial identity as “the developmental process by which a person incorporates race” (p. 81). Cross (1971, 1991) conceptualized African American identity in his nigrescence theory and considered identity as a “resocializing process” in which an individual transforms a preexisting identity to one that is Afrocentric, also known as the process of becoming Black. Cross’s model includes four stages: (a) pre-encounter, (b) encounter, (c) immersion–emersion, and (d) internalization–commitment. According to Cross (1991), adolescents in the pre-encounter stage often give no real credence or acknowledgment to race, nor do they consider it something that has affected their lives. The first time African American adolescent males may understand their Blackness is in Stage 2 of nigrescence. In the encounter stage, an event occurs that affects or shapes how the adolescent views their race, and because of this event, they take action, which is the catalyst for change. Next, in the immersion–emersion stage, the adolescent has not yet changed, but they commit to change during this phase, including developing rage toward the dominant race and a sense of pride in the self, Black people, and Black culture. The final stage of Cross’s model is the internalization–commitment stage, a transition period during which the adolescent is working through the challenges of their new identity and moving from how others view them to how they view themselves (Cross, 1991). The core concepts of nigrescence theory assist in understanding the dimensions of racial identity that African American students move through and the impact racial identity has on an individual’s self-concept, self-worth, and self-esteem.

According to Plummer (1995), establishing a racial identity is a critical part of identity formation for African American adolescents. Racism significantly impacts racial identity development (Cross, 1991; Plummer, 1995). African American male students are more at risk for experiencing racism and prejudice in their educational settings than their African American female peers (DeCuir-Gunby, 2009). As a result, they may internalize the negative messages they receive about themselves and their ethnicity from their White teachers, White peers, and society in general (St. Mary et al., 2018). School counselors who lack the insight and awareness into their own racial identity development are at a disadvantage in their capacity to recognize thoughts, beliefs, and feelings related to the racial identity development of their African American male students and may disrupt their racial identity process to the detriment of their academic success (Ford & Moore, 2013; Spencer & Dowden, 2014). These internalized beliefs and attitudes may cause African American male students to disengage from the education process, which negatively affects their achievement status.

Education is replete with social, cultural, and political elements that influence the academic achievement and racial identity of African American males (Moss & Singh, 2015). Perhaps the most salient of these factors are educators themselves. White educators have an impact on the racial identity development of African American male students (Moss & Singh, 2015). The findings from several studies suggest White teachers treat their African American students differently from their other students (Howard, 2008; McGrady & Reynolds, 2013; Tucker et al., 2010) and have lower expectations for their African American students (Hopkins & Garrett, 2010). Studies also posit that African American males perceive school counselors as barriers to their academic success and placement in advanced coursework, both in middle and high school (Henfield, Owens, & Moore, 2008). Lowered expectations and negative misperceptions are problematic to the academic success of African American male students because they negatively affect the teacher–student relationship (Cokley et al., 2011). The policies and practices of school counselors can perpetuate or remediate the racial disparities experienced by African American male students (Allen & White-Smith, 2014). White educators, including school counselors, have the power to positively affect the racial identity development of African American males (DeCuir-Gunby, 2009) by ensuring that these students have meaningful and positive connections to the school. White school counselors may need to enlighten themselves on racial identity development in order to not perceive problems African American males face as nonracial (Akos & Ellis, 2008). White school counselors must acknowledge their privilege to see and address the concerns of African American males, developing allyship in changing the narrative (Moss & Singh, 2015). Furthermore, school counselors must remain aware of how their privilege may impact the way they view their African American male students. School counselors can support a positive academic identification when they have an adequate understanding of the identity development of African American males and knowledge of cultural and psychosocial factors such as race and racism that affect African American students’ sense of academic identity (DeCuir-Gunby, 2009).

Scholars cite the importance of understanding the role racial identity has on African American males (Ellis et al., 2018). School counselors must understand the impact they have on fostering the positive racial identity of African American males in their buildings and how their neglect or racist practices may disrupt the racial identity process. Attention to the messages African American males receive from society during adolescence which affect their racial identity development is also crucial for school counselors. Stereotypes persist about African American males throughout various systems, including schools, that suggest they are inferior to those who are White (Ford & Moore, 2013). Receiving these racist messages during the encounter stage of nigrescence may adversely impact African American male students’ racial identity development despite their scholastic accomplishments or aptitude (Ford & Moore, 2013). School counselors who are knowledgeable of the importance of racial dynamics can play a significant role for African American male students by supporting, addressing, and changing the environments that hold and disperse messages that impact their academic and racial development (Akos & Ellis, 2008).

School counselors must understand the impact they have on fostering the positive racial identity of African American males in their buildings and how their neglect or racist practices may disrupt the racial identity process.…. [They] can play a significant role for African American male students by supporting, addressing, and changing the environments that hold and disperse messages that impact their academic and racial development (Akos & Ellis, 2008).

Peer Influence on Racial Identity Development

Adolescence is a period of identity development for all students. However, for African American males, this identity development comprises personal identity, racial identity, and group identity. Thus, they seek out social support from other African American peers, which has both positive and negative implications (DeCuir-Gunby, 2009). Cross’s (1971, 1991) racial identity development model of nigrescence stipulates that for African American adolescents, establishing a racial identity is aligned with creating a personal identity. Cross (1971, 1991) further posits that unlike other ethnic peer groups, African American males are forced to declare their position on their connection or disconnection with their race under the influence of parents, peer groups, and teachers. It is this declaration of one’s racial identity that may determine peer acceptance or rejection. During the immersion–emersion stage of Cross’s (1991) model, African American adolescent males tend to seek out support and acceptance from their Black peers.

African American male students encounter perceived challenges in environments where they stand out, including school (Howard, 2008), and therefore seek support from what is comfortable to them. According to Tatum (1997), since academic success often correlates to being White, “Black students turn to each other for the much-needed support they are not likely to find anywhere else” (p. 60). African American males’ sense of belonging to their race group is so strong that they will often sabotage their education for acceptance from their peers (Wyatt, 2009). African American adolescent males who struggle with racial identity may be afraid to excel for fear of being viewed by peers as “acting White.” This statement reflects the constant need for African American adolescent males to place acceptance from their peers before their academic success (DeCuir-Gunby et al., 2012). Connections to successful mentors, including near-peer mentors and positive role models who belong to their racial group, and support systems, community resources, and membership in organizations that advance their education and promote a sense of belonging may be significant to these students’ overall success (Ford & Moore, 2013; Wyatt, 2009). School counselors who do not understand the beliefs, needs, and identity development of African American males may be unable to offer strategies to help them find a balance between academic success and social fulfillment (DeCuir-Gunby et al., 2012; Henfield, Moore, & Wood, 2008). Prior research has posited that students with a positive racial identity are better adjusted and better able to negotiate potentially negative environments, deal with discrimination and prejudice, and have high self-esteem (Spencer & Dowden, 2014).

Recent research and literature have neglected the study of racial identity development in African American adolescent males (Plummer, 1995). Racial identity assists individuals in understanding how race and racism develop African American males’ opinions about their realities in settings such as schools, ultimately affecting how they view themselves (Ellis et al., 2018). The literature is also limited as it relates to the subjective experiences of African American males in their school settings and how others’ perceptions affect their racial identity development (DeCuir-Gunby, 2009). When portraying gaps in academic performance, previous studies lacked consideration of the individual, familial, and community factors that are related to racial identity development and are known to have greater effects on African American populations (St. Mary et al., 2018). School counselors should actively engage African American males in conversations centered on race and social justice and help them process their feelings and concerns regarding race and their identity as African Americans (Spencer & Dowden, 2014).

CRT

CRT posits that a correlation exists between race, racism, school discipline, high-stakes testing, and the academic achievement of African American males (Delgado & Stefanic, 2001). Although CRT began with a focus on issues of race and racism in the law, educators have begun to use CRT to address issues of discrimination and inequities in the education system and explain the pervasive role of race and racism in the classroom (Howard, 2008; Moss & Singh, 2015). Therefore, CRT provides a framework for difficult dialogues centered on race, class, and gender as the focus for an analysis of African American male underachievement (Howard, 2008). CRT allows school counselors to address barriers associated with the intersectionality of being both African American and male, considering how educational practices may impede their success (Allen & White-Smith, 2014). Scholars cite concerns on African American males’ underrepresentation in gifted programs as significant since slavery and the integration of schools after Brown v. Board of Education (1954), resulting in the current institutional issues within educational systems (Moore et al., 2008). These historical inequities continue to exist and manifest as disparities in achievement between African American males and White students (Zion & Blanchett, 2011). Moreover, these disparities are also apparent in the overrepresentation of African American males in special education (Moore et al., 2008) and underrepresentation of African American males identified as gifted (Zion & Blanchett, 2011). School counselors who center their approach to African American male students validate these students’ experiences and voice to be better understood and heard (Moore et al., 2008).

CRT has five major tenets: (a) Racism is ordinary and pervasive in society, (b) the idea of an interest convergence (the notion that Whites will support racial justice to the extent they will benefit from it or that there is a “convergence” between Whites and non-Whites), (c) the social construction of race to the detriment of people of color, (d) the use of storytelling and counter-storytelling, and (e) Whites have been recipients of civil rights legislation (Bell, 1980; Delgado & Stefanic, 2001). CRT presents an appropriate theoretical foundation for educators to conceptualize how the intersections of race and gender influence achievement as it relates to academic testing, teacher perception, curriculum bias, and classroom structure (Delgado & Stefanic, 2001; Howard, 2008; Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). CRT prompts school counselors to not take a color-blind approach but to consider and validate the role race plays in African American student’s educational experiences (Allen & White-Smith, 2014). CRT also insists that race, racism, and class inhibit the academic opportunities of African American males as they face constant barriers to their schooling, including essentialism, microaggressions, and White privilege (Howard, 2008; Solorazano & Yosso, 2001).

Therefore, CRT can be a suitable theory for school counselors to use when examining existing school structures, policies, procedures, and interactions with African American adolescent males, specifically as they relate to persistent underachievement. The use of a race-based epistemology, such as CRT, provides an appropriate framework to give voice to a marginalized group of students who have historically been silenced in the education system, thereby providing African American adolescent males a forum to challenge the dominant ideology and racist stereotypes that plague their schooling experiences while recognizing the other forms of oppression that influence their achievement and racial identity development (Howard, 2008). CRT provides school counselors a guide to examine how institutional practices embedded in racist ideology may contribute to educational inequities for students of color (Moon & Singh, 2015) and insight into possible ways to restore educational equality. School counselors are in a position to strengthen the academic achievement and educational experience of African American males and advocate on behalf of students in the creation of programs and services that support and attend to students’ needs (Moore et al., 2008). To provide equity and access for marginalized African American male students, school counselors and educators in K–12 settings can use the framework of CRT to create interventions that increase the achievement of African American males while countering the negative societal and education narratives about them (Ford & Harris, 1995; López et al., 2018; Zion & Blanchett, 2011).

CRT can be a suitable theory for school counselors to use when examining existing school structures, policies, procedures, and interactions with African American adolescent males, specifically as they relate to persistent underachievement. The use of a race-based epistemology, such as CRT, provides an appropriate framework to give voice to a marginalized group of students who have historically been silenced in the education system.

Implications for K–12 School Counselors

The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) has made social and cultural diversity a core curricular area in the counselor education programs it accredits (CACREP, 2017). However, although the field of counseling is becoming more diverse, the majority of students entering counseling master’s programs, including school counseling, continue to identify as White (CACREP, 2017), which is the most common race or ethnicity of counselors in the United States, at more than 60% (Data USA, 2017). Recent demographic data related specifically to the field of school counseling is limited but suggests that the profession is dominated by White women. White school counselors make up 76% of membership in the American School Counselor Association (ASCA, 2020). More than 70% of counselors in the United States, including school counselors, identify as female (Data USA, 2017), as do 85% of ASCA members (ASCA, 2020). These statistics indicate that many African American adolescent males are likely to encounter only White, female school counselors during their K–12 education; therefore, it is imperative that school counselors adopt a critical framework through which to view their African American adolescent male students’ identity development and achievement as they work to eliminate barriers to successful academic outcomes.

School counselors play an integral role in the academic success of all students. They also have the unique perspective of both an educator and counselor. Therefore, school counselors must identify how the constructs of race and gender affect the academic success of their African American male students and develop systemic interventions to counteract this national phenomenon and stop the cycle of racism and disenfranchisement plaguing these young men (Spencer & Dowden, 2014). As evidenced by previous research centered on the schooling experiences of African American males (Bryan et al., 2012; Craven et al., 2014; Howard, 2008), racial microaggressions are prevalent in school policies, curriculum tracking, and teacher practices; therefore, school counselors can play a critical role in transforming these negative experiences by establishing interventions within the framework of CRT and in consideration of racial identity development. Furthermore, school counseling interventions must be centered on the American Counseling Association Advocacy Competencies (Toporek et al., 2009) and should be composed of both individual/microlevel interventions and macro-level interventions (Moon & Singh, 2015; Ratts & Hutchinson, 2009). School counselors must be intentional in considering the concept of racial identity development when planning implementations to ensure that the interventions support strong and positive identity development of African American males while encouraging academic achievement. According to the ASCA (2019a) National Model, school counselors’ advocacy efforts involve (a) removing barriers such as lack of early exposure to challenging coursework, stereotypes, and negative educator perceptions which obstruct students’ development; (b) promoting and enhancing learning for all students; (c) ensuring equitable access to a rigorous and quality school curriculum; (d) collaborating with stakeholders to help address student needs; and (e) promoting positive, systemic change in schools (Henfield, Owens, & Moore, 2008). Using existing research literature as the primary data source with the roles of the school counselor—including leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and strategic interventions—we focus the school-based counseling interventions into three broad categories: (a) individual/student-centered, (b) collaboration and consultation, and (c) school-wide. Each of these broad categories encompasses interventions that target the aforementioned advocacy efforts to provide implications for school counselors through the lens of CRT while considering the effect on students’ racial identity development.

School-Based Counseling Interventions for African American Male Students

African American males are often perceived as disengaged or disinterested in school (Howard, 2008); however, several studies indicate that, in fact, many African American males desire to be successful in school (Howard, 2008; Moon & Singh, 2015; Uwah et al., 2008). K–12 school counselors have the unique combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes to not only negate and highlight the lived experiences of their African American male students but also to implement interventions and programs that will encourage and promote their academic and personal success (Tucker et al., 2010). According to ASCA (2019b), one of the major responsibilities of school counselors is to advocate for opportunities that reduce barriers to academic success for underachieving students. Working to reduce these barriers has the potential to decrease the achievement gap, increase connectedness and belonging in school, and positively impact the schooling experience of African American adolescent males (Bruce et al., 2009). Based on the pervasive nature of the underachievement of African American adolescent males, the interventions implemented by school counselors must be data driven, developmentally broad, and culturally specific (ASCA, 2019a; Liddell & Kurpius, 2014; Moon & Singh, 2015). Therefore, implementing comprehensive, multilevel interventions within the framework of CRT aligned with ASCA ensures that the academic success of African American males is at the forefront.

Student-Centered Interventions

Direct services

Individual or student-centered interventions allow school counselors to meet the direct needs of their students. Under the lens of both racial identity development and CRT, student-centered interventions can positively impact the experiences of African American males in school. Knowledge of significant experiences related to their families, peers, and teachers, and the student’s input, may be helpful when developing these individual interventions. School counselors’ first step in creating student-centered interventions is to build a trusting relationship with their African American male students (Howard, 2008). To establish this relationship, school counselors must ensure that they acknowledge their cultural biases and attitudes and are educated on the multicultural competencies and effective ways of working with African American male students (Moon & Singh, 2015). This includes being aware of the multitude of issues that perpetuate the continuation of the underachievement of African American males and how the intersections of gender and race impact their schooling experiences (Bruce et al., 2009; Howard, 2008; Moon & Singh, 2015). Examples of individual interventions include the formation of a mentoring program aimed at African American male students with successful adult African American males as mentors (Moon & Singh, 2015). Through a race-specific mentoring program, students have the opportunity to establish and maintain relationships with positive role models who have personal insight into the racial identity development of Black males along with their own lived experiences as an African American adolescent male in school. Race- and gender-specific mentoring programs validate and empower African American males’ experiences and encourage them to explore their place in an unjust society and how they can work to challenge and transform such a system (Craven et al., 2014). A 2014 research study conducted by Craven et.al. found that targeted mentoring programs may impact the identity integration of African American male participants.

Another intervention that falls under direct services is small-group counseling. Research indicates that gender-specific, strengths-based, school counselor–led small-group interventions can accelerate positive changes for students experiencing school deficits such as a sense of identity, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and academic achievement (Liddell & Kurpius, 2014; Tucker et al., 2010). School-based small groups that center on participants’ perceptions of what it means to be a Black male, racial identity development, and academic success can improve academic and personal outcomes for underachieving African American male students (Liddell & Kurpius, 2014). Topics for a gender-specific, strengths-based small group may include challenging stereotypes, recognizing strengths, encouraging individual and collective responsibility, masculine ideology, positive relationships with peers, future goals, and cultural consciousness. The formation of groups specifically for African American males emphasizes key CRT tenets. Both mentoring groups and small counseling groups focus on the use of storytelling and counter-storytelling to give space for the students to tell their own stories regarding their personal experiences with race and racism in their schooling. This supports another key tenet of CRT that race and racism are ordinary and pervasive in American society. Finally, according to the 2008 review of research by Trusty et al., peer tutoring was found to be the most successful school counselor–led intervention to increase academic achievement and engagement within schools for African American male students. As part of a comprehensive and developmental school counseling program, school counselors may facilitate a peer-tutoring program as a strategic intervention to help decrease the achievement gap while providing opportunities to promote racial identity development among these students.

The formation of groups specifically for African American males emphasizes key CRT tenets. Both mentoring groups and small counseling groups focus on the use of storytelling and counter-storytelling to give space for the students to tell their own stories regarding their personal experiences with race and racism in their schooling. This supports another key tenet of CRT that race and racism are ordinary and pervasive in American society.

Collaboration and consultation

School counselors must play a deliberate role in promoting developmental, social, and academic achievement through proactive programming and initiatives for their students (Bryan et al., 2012; Whiting, 2009). To impact African American males, such initiatives must focus on teaching these students to develop the attitudes, behaviors, and self-advocacy skills needed to be academically successful (Whiting, 2009). Although school counselors must examine their individual students’ world to achieve a holistic understanding of their issues, they must also consider that all school staff play important roles in students’ academic development and success. Therefore, the school counselor must develop and build consulting and collaborative relationships with all members of the school staff to maximize student growth and act as an advocate for their African American male students (Bryan et al., 2012). Furthermore, according to Moon and Singh (2015), extending collaborations outside of the school building with stakeholders invested in the success of African American male students is another strategy for school counselors to employ. Collaborating with national organizations that have a strong history of advocating for African American adolescent males, such as 100 Black Men, Big Brothers Big Sisters, Gentlemen on the Move (Bailey & Paisley, 2011), and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, among others, may prove to be a viable approach for enhancing student success both inside and outside of the classroom and extending far beyond the end of high school.

Collaboration and consultation connect to the CRT key tenet affirming that race is socially constructed to the detriment of people of color (Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). School counselors must be aware that although they may serve a diverse student body, the educational system is largely White, requiring a more in-depth exploration of their work and practices in the placement of African American male students (Allen & White-Smith, 2014). According to Whiting (2009), “At the heart of each type of support must be a focus on changing Black males’ self-perception—their self-esteem, self-concept, and racial identity—in academic-oriented settings” (p. 227). School counselors can encourage this positive support by creating culturally responsive counseling experiences in their settings. One way to address this need is by facilitating school counselor–led courageous conversations centered on marginalized students, cultural awareness, and academic achievement through staff development and teacher focus groups where critical issues, pertinent data, and possible resolutions can be discussed (Moon & Singh, 2015; Tucker et al., 2010). During these courageous conversations, culturally competent school counselors can teach educators about effectively working with racially and ethnically diverse groups and how these differences affect individual students’ education. School counselors must challenge other educators to enhance their knowledge, awareness, and skills about racially and culturally diverse students and to create culturally appropriate pedagogical skills that support the learning needs of the students they serve.

Culturally competent school counselors can teach educators about effectively working with racially and ethnically diverse groups and how these differences affect individual students’ education. School counselors must challenge educators to enhance their knowledge, awareness, and skills about racially and culturally diverse students and to create culturally appropriate pedagogical skills that support the learning needs of the students they serve.

School-wide intervention

Part of the responsibility of a school counselor is to implement systemic interventions that create a school culture of respect and acceptance to help students become culturally competent peers (Bryan et al., 2012). School counselors cite mentorship programs with individuals in the community which emphasize education on African American history as effective in promoting positive racial identity development (Akos & Ellis, 2008). School-wide mentoring programs may assist African American male students in their social development and their ability to cope with difficulties through understanding systemic barriers while building a sense of community (Akos & Ellis, 2008). Participation and engagement in systemic programs such as these assist in building teacher, student, and staff relationships through increased understanding of racial contexts. Coupled with programs, school counselors can offer social justice counseling to challenge the systematic barriers and empower their students in groups through the sharing of experiences (Moss & Singh, 2015). Finally, school counselors who focus on increasing the cultural competence of educators within their schools foster knowledge of the importance of diversity and inclusion within their classrooms (Schulz et al., 2014). African American males and students in other minority groups respond better to learner-centered approaches such as discovery learning and project-based learning (Schulz et al., 2014). School-wide multicultural awareness programs; student–staff mentoring programs to build teacher–student relationships (Whiting, 2009); small-group counseling on cultural and racial awareness, peer support, and academic achievement (Bryan et al., 2012); and classroom instruction focusing on diversity and academic achievement are systemic programs that can affect the racial identity development and academic achievement of all students including African American males.

School-wide interventions, such as the aforementioned, align with CRT tenets that focus on countering dominant societal narratives regarding African American male youths and recognizing the experiences of people of color (Moon & Singh, 2015). Assessing their African American students’ perceptions of school climate also may be helpful for school counselors. Nurturing and accepting environments are optimal for students to achieve success (Tucker et al., 2010). The school’s climate may be emblematic of the overall attitudes and behaviors of teachers and administrators toward African American male students, their families, and their academic abilities (Bruce et al., 2009), and awareness may assist all school personnel in better understanding the barriers faced by African American males. Through conducting school-wide assessments, school counselors can implement strategies and programs that are inclusive and help to develop a positive school climate in which African American male students feel supported, encouraged, and connected, thereby fostering an atmosphere conducive to academic success (Bruce et al., 2009; Tucker et al., 2010).

Conclusion

Race and racism are social constructs that persist within education. School counselors can assist in dismantling the impact these constructs have on their marginalized students, particularly African American adolescent males (Moss & Singh, 2015). Within the framework of CRT and using their knowledge of the racial identity development of this population, school counselors have the unique opportunity to identify and give voice to where, when, and how race-related issues impact the underachievement of their African American male students and advocate on their behalf. School counselors are called to extend their advocacy efforts beyond students and families by working to combat and reduce inequalities and limitations for all people (ASCA, 2019b). The fact that successful academic outcomes hinge on individual, group, and school-wide performance increases the importance of a multilevel approach (ASCA, 2019a). Also within the role of the school counselor is developing and implementing multilevel, school-based interventions that may reverse the disenfranchisement of these students and assist in narrowing the existing achievement gap, thereby enhancing their overall K–12 schooling experience and increasing academic and social/emotional success.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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