A Mixed Methods Investigation of Mobile-Based Language Learning on EFL Students’ Listening,Speaking,Foreign Language Enjoyment,and Anxiety

Abstract

This mixed-methods study examined the effectiveness of Rosetta Stone, a mobile-based language learning application, on Chinese EFL students’ listening, speaking, foreign language enjoyment (FLE), and foreign language anxiety (FLA). Two groups of intermediate Chinese EFL students from a language institute, with 33 students in the control group and 36 in the experimental group, were recruited as the participants. The treatment lasted for 3 months, with the experimental group using Rosetta Stone in addition to in-class instruction whereas the control group received only the regular in-class instruction. Data collection involved administering IELTS module tests of speaking and listening, FLE and FLA scales, as well as semi-structured interviews. ANCOVA, paired samples test, and content analysis were used for the data analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data. The results indicate that the experimental group showed significant improvements in their listening, speaking, FLE, and reduced FLA more than the control group. The results of the qualitative data indicated that the students had positive attitudes toward mobile-based language learning. The qualitative findings provided further support to the quantitative results and highlighted the convenience, flexibility, and engaging nature of the application. The outcomes stressed the potential benefits of using mobile-based language learning tools like Rosetta Stone as an effective supplementary method for improving EFL learning outcomes and promoting positive affective variables.

Plain language summary

This study looked at how a mobile language learning app called Rosetta Stone affected Chinese students’ listening, speaking, enjoyment of learning a foreign language, and anxiety about learning a foreign language. The researchers had two groups of intermediate Chinese students: one group used Rosetta Stone along with regular classroom instruction, and the other group only had regular classroom instruction. The study lasted for 3 months. The researchers tested the students’ listening and speaking skills, as well as their levels of enjoyment and anxiety in learning a foreign language. They also conducted interviews with the students. The results showed that the group using Rosetta Stone had significant improvements in listening, speaking, enjoyment, and reduced anxiety compared to the group that only had classroom instruction. The interviews supported these findings and showed that the students liked using the mobile app because it was convenient, flexible, and engaging. Overall, this study suggests that using mobile language learning apps like Rosetta Stone can be a helpful addition to regular classroom instruction, improving language learning outcomes and students’ positive attitudes. However, it’s important to note that this study had some limitations, such as the small sample size and focus on a specific language app, so further research is needed to confirm these findings in different contexts and with larger groups of students.

Keywords

mobile-based language learning speaking listening foreign language enjoyment foreign language anxiety Rosetta Stone Mixed Methods

Introduction

Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) is a term widely used to describe language instruction facilitated through the use of technology (Hwang & Fu, 2018; Karakaya & Bozkurt, 2022; Lei et al., 2022; R. Li, 2023; Miangah & Nezarat, 2012; Viberg & Grönlund, 2012; Zou & Thomas, 2019). These technologies, characterized by their portability and accessibility, empower students to engage with language learning materials in diverse settings and at various times (Bachore, 2015; Cakmak, 2019; Kukulska-Hulme, 2009; F. Li et al., 2022; Tayebinik & Puteh, 2012; Yang, 2013). Through interactive features, mobile applications offer students additional opportunities to immerse themselves in the language, thereby diversifying teaching methods beyond conventional resources (Ekinci & Ekinci, 2017; Kim & Kwon, 2012; P. L. Liu & Chen, 2015). Moreover, these applications have been noted to heighten motivation, bolster vocabulary acquisition, and foster a deeper and more purposeful learning experience (Ekinci & Ekinci, 2017; Fathi & Rahimi, 2022; L. Hsu, 2013; Lei et al., 2022; Loewen et al., 2019).

One notable application in this realm is Rosetta Stone (Lord, 2015; Vesselinov, 2009), a platform designed to support language learning within English language contexts. By delivering contextualized multimedia content, Rosetta Stone aims to enhance a diverse range of language skills and sub-skills. Its practical methods and exercises facilitate accelerated language acquisition (Prasetyo et al., 2018). Moreover, Rosetta Stone offers a more engaging and innovative learning experience compared to traditional instruction methods, which may often lack the motivating impact of MALL-based approaches (Hanif, 2016; Ikonta & Ugonna, 2015; G. Z. Liu et al., 2023; Rimeldi & Kurniawan, 2021).

While earlier research on Rosetta Stone has primarily centered around learners’ general language proficiency (Lord, 2016; Namaziandost et al., 2021; Pellom, 2012; Şanverdi, 2021), its impact on specific language skills, particularly speaking and listening, warrants deeper exploration. Recent studies have begun to illuminate the application’s significant role in developing these skills (Aryani, 2022; Kurniawan et al., 2021). However, there remains a scarcity of research in English as a foreign language (EFL) settings focusing on the nuanced effects of Rosetta Stone on speaking and listening abilities, as well as on learner engagement in these activities.

This leads to a natural segue into the realm of positive psychology, which in recent years has garnered attention as a promising approach to enhancing students’ well-being, motivation, and academic achievement (Seligman, 2018). Emphasizing the identification and nurturing of individual strengths, positive emotions, and overall well-being, positive psychology provides a framework for individuals to thrive and achieve their goals (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). The integration of positive psychology interventions has demonstrated its effectiveness in elevating learning outcomes, motivation, and overall well-being in various educational contexts, including second/foreign language (L2) learning (Resnik & Schallmoser, 2019). In light of these shifting paradigms in L2 research, the exploration of affective variables like foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language anxiety (FLA) becomes imperative, given their substantial impact on L2 proficiency (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016). FLE has been linked to heightened motivation, engagement, and persistence in language learning (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014), whereas FLA has been associated with detrimental effects on language learning, including reduced motivation and performance (Horwitz et al., 1986). Therefore, investigating the influence of mobile-based instruction through Rosetta Stone on FLE and FLA offers a promising avenue to leverage technology in fostering positive affective experiences in language learning.

Given the background discussed above, the purpose of the current study was to determine how the Rosetta Stone application affected the speaking and listening abilities of Chinese EFL learners. Also, the effect of this mobile-based instruction on FLE and FLA was examined. Moreover, the perceptions of the EFL learners of their experience of using the Rosetta Stone application were also explored to shed further insight into the results. This study is significant because it addresses the need for empirical research on the effectiveness of Rosetta Stone as a language learning tool, particularly in the context of EFL learning. The findings of this study will contribute to the understanding of the effectiveness of mobile-based language learning tools in improving EFL learning outcomes, which can inform EFL teachers and learners about the potential benefits and challenges of integrating technology-based tools in language learning. Also, in light of positive psychology, this study might illuminate how incorporating a mobile-based instruction via Rosetta Stone can contribute to fostering students’ overall well-being, motivation, and achievement in L2 learning. Finally, this study can provide insights into the students’ perceptions and attitudes toward using Rosetta Stone, which can inform the design and development of future language learning tools.

Literature Review

Theoretical Framework

The social constructivist theory of learning proposed by Vygotsky (1984) served as the foundation for the present research. According to this theory, learners first rely on object regulation, including technology devices mediating their behaviors, then on other regulation, including completing various tasks with other classmates in an interactive way. This results in their self-regulation, whereby a learner acts independently and mediate their cognitive abilities through symbolic tools (Vygotsky, 1986). In other words, learners do not self-regulate their cognitive abilities (i.e., they do not act autonomously) until they have been mediated by objects and have interacted with other classmates (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006).

In the context of language learning, the social constructivist theory posits that language learning is not just about acquiring new vocabulary or grammatical structures, but also about learning to use language appropriately in different social and cultural contexts. This means that language learning is not just about mastering the rules of grammar and syntax, but also about developing communicative competence, or the ability to use language in a socially and culturally appropriate manner (Kukulska-Hulme & Viberg, 2018; S. H. J. Liu & Lan, 2016). In this study, the Rosetta Stone application was viewed as an object influencing how EFL learners developed their speaking and listening skills. To gradually develop their verbal autonomy, the students had to engage with the Rosetta Stone application and their fellow classmates. This procedure was repeated until the students were proficient in the necessary speaking and listening abilities. Overall, the novelty of this study lies in its focus on the use of mobile-based language learning tools like Rosetta Stone, which incorporate social constructivist principles of learning, as a supplementary method for improving EFL learning outcomes.

Rosetta Stone Application

Rosetta Stone is a mobile-based language learning application which uses pictures, sound, and text to teach words, listening, and grammar. Applying this application, students can rapidly move from words and phrases to sentences and discussions without translation or tedious explanations or drills. Students also learn the new language by listening to samples of how native speakers use the syntax and vocabulary of the new language. By connecting the new language with meaning in authentic circumstances, this application makes use of learners own fundamental language learning skills and enables them to reflect on their new language skills (Rosetta Stone user guide, 2007).

Rosetta Stone is a dynamic mobile-based language learning application designed to facilitate immersive and constructivist language acquisition experiences (Lord, 2015). It boasts an intuitive interface that integrates visuals, audio, and text, providing a comprehensive platform for learners. Through carefully curated activities, students progress organically from individual words and phrases to crafting sentences and engaging in meaningful conversations. One of the app’s distinguishing features lies in its departure from conventional translation-based methods, opting instead for an approach that minimizes rote memorization and eliminates the need for exhaustive explanations or repetitive drills (Vesselinov, 2009).

In accordance with Vygotsky’s (1984) constructivist theory, Rosetta Stone places a strong emphasis on contextualized learning. By immersing students in authentic language usage scenarios, the application prompts learners to internalize the nuances of syntax and vocabulary naturally. Through exposure to native speakers’ expressions and speech patterns, learners gain invaluable insights into the subtleties of the new language. This process encourages learners to actively construct their understanding of the language, aligning with Vygotsky’s framework, which emphasizes the learner’s role as an active participant in their own knowledge acquisition (Vygotsky, 1986). In practice, this approach leverages learners’ innate cognitive processes, allowing them to not only absorb new linguistic elements but also to engage in critical reflection on their developing language skills. The application acts as a facilitator, scaffolding the learning experience and empowering students to progress at their individual pace. By weaving together immersive experiences and constructivist principles, Rosetta Stone stands as a powerful tool for fostering authentic language acquisition.

The Rosetta Stone application has recently attracted the researchers’ attention in English language contexts (Daniel, 2008; Ikonta & Ugonna, 2015; Ravagnani et al., 2017; Ryabkova, 2020; Work, 2014). Hanifa and Santoso (2022), for instance, investigated the impact of the Rosetta Stone application on EFL learners’ pronunciation. The EFL learners used the Rosetta Stone application to perform the pronunciation practices and tests at home and their works were monitored via WhatsApp by the instructor. Adopting a pre- and post-test research design, the results showed that the Rosetta Stone application enhanced the EFL learners’ pronunciation correctness, including their word stress, intonation, and linking words in conversations. The interview data collection and analysis further revealed that the EFL learners had positive perceptions of the use of the Rosetta Stone application for improving their pronunciation.

Similarly, Ikonta and Ugonna (2015) checked the effect of Rosetta Stone on learners’ language learning skills (i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and writing). Adopting a pre-test, post-test research design, the results showed that Rosetta Stone increased the learners’ language learning skills. The findings also revealed the learners’ increased motivation and cooperative engagement in language learning activities using Rosetta Stone. Annisa (2021) examined the impact of the Rosetta Stone application on EFL learners’ vocabulary competency. Two classes were randomly assigned to a Rosetta Stone class and a conventional class to check the differences of these two methods of instruction in enhancing students’ vocabulary knowledge. Using pre- and post-test research design, the results demonstrated that the Rosetta Stone application enhanced the learners’ vocabulary knowledge and outperformed the conventional mode of instruction in that regard.

Similarly, Sharifi et al. (2015) looked how Rosetta Stone affected young Iranian EFL learners’ vocabulary acquisition. Sixty pupils were randomly allocated to an experimental group and a control group to accomplish this goal. The learners were instructed on a word list that was chosen from their textbook. The experimental group received instruction in these words via Rosetta Stone, whereas the control groups received conventional instruction. The analysis revealed that the post-test scores of the two groups differed significantly, showing that the Rosetta Stone group outperformed the traditional group in post-test performance.

Furthermore, Astanina et al. (2019) explored the impact of the Rosetta Stone application on students’ reading skills. The study recruited three classes and assigned them to either a control group, teaching reading comprehension materials conventionally, a blended learning group, in-class teaching of reading materials with the out-of-class support of the Rosetta Stone application, and a complete online class, using the Rosetta Stone application to cover the related materials. The findings indicated that all the three aforementioned groups developed the students’ reading skills. However, the blended learning and the complete online students performed better than the control students in reading skills, substantiating that the Rosetta Stone application had a significant impact on the students reading skill improvements.

A number of studies have also investigated the effect of the Rosetta Stone application on EFL learners’ speaking and/or listening skills (Kurniawan et al., 2021; Yurdean & Syafei, 2016). Aryani (2022), for example, examined the effect of the Rosetta Stone application on speaking performance of EFL learners. The EFL learners were randomly divided into two groups, one of which using the Rosetta Stone application to practice speaking activities with their classmates and the other group applied face-to-face mode of speaking activities. Applying pre- and post-tests of a speaking skill measurement, the findings indicated that the Rosetta Stone application developed the EFL learners’ speaking performance and outperformed its face-to-face counterpart in that regard.

Kurniawan et al. (2021) examined the impact of the Rosetta Stone application and conventional method of instruction on students’ listening skill. Using research journals and tests for data collection purposes, and applying a pre- and post-tests research design, the findings revealed that the Rosetta Stone application improved the students’ listening skill and outperformed the conventional way of teaching listening skill. In a similar vein, Pahlepi (2022) explored the perceptions of learners toward the effect of the Rosetta Stone application on their listening comprehension. The required data were collected using questionnaires and interviews. The findings indicated that the Rosetta Stone application increased the learners’ interest toward the technology-based listening activities.

Positive Psychology in Language Education

Positive psychology is a subfield of psychology that emphasizes positive emotions, experiences, and characteristics that contribute to human well-being and flourishing (Seligman, 2018; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). It has gained attention in the field of language education, as it provides a new perspective on language learning that boldfaces the positive facets of the learning experience (Dewaele et al., 2019). Positive psychology is based on Fredrickson’s (2003)“broaden and build” theory, which posits that positive emotions can expand people’s momentary thought-action repertoires and develop their long-lasting personal resources, including physical, intellectual, social, and psychological competencies. Some interventions, rooted in this branch of psychology, such as positive self-talk, goal setting, and gratitude journals have been found to increase motivation, engagement, and language learning outcomes in various contexts (C. Li & Xu, 2019).

One of the main principles of positive psychology is that it focuses on strengths rather than weaknesses. L2 learners who are encouraged to focus on their strengths are more likely to experience positive emotions and greater motivation, leading to improved learning outcomes (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016). Positive psychology perspective has also been found to focus on FLA and increase FLE, both of which are key factors in language learning success (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Dewaele et al., 2018; MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2012).

Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE)

With the introduction of positive psychology in L2 domain, the focus of research has shifted from solely examining negative emotions to a more comprehensive analysis of both negative and positive emotions (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). In this regard, MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012) emphasized that positive emotions in language learning encompass more than just pleasant feelings. Learners who experience positive emotions are more likely to be attentive to their classroom environment and become more conscious of the language input, leading to greater comprehension of the foreign language (Mercer & Williams, 2014). Furthermore, positive emotions can foster long-term effects beyond the classroom, as they can make learners more resilient and better equipped to face challenges (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014).

FLE is a positive emotional response that occurs when a learner engages with a second or foreign language in a meaningful way (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). FLE is an integral construct in language learning outcomes, as learners who experience positive emotions when using the language are more likely to engage in language learning activities and achieve higher proficiency levels (Dewaele et al., 2018). Positive interactions with friendly peers, supportive and encouraging teachers, and an interesting and adequately challenging classroom environment mediate enjoyment (Pavelescu & Petric, 2018). Moreover, enjoyment is believed to facilitate L2 learners’ attention, processing, and acquisition of the target language (Dewaele & Alfawzan, 2018).

Recent research has shown that technology can also enhance foreign language enjoyment by providing learners with convenient and flexible access to language learning programs (Zheng & Zhou, 2023). In addition, incorporating features such as interactive and engaging activities into language learning software can increase learner engagement and enjoyment (Resnik & Schallmoser, 2019). Leveraging the capabilities of technology, L2 educators can create a positive learning context that fosters foreign language enjoyment and encourages learners to continue practicing and improving their language skills.

Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA)

FLA is characterized by the experience of negative emotions when individuals are compelled to engage in language activities within a second or foreign language context (Horwitz, 2017). It encompasses a multifaceted range of self-perceptions, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors intricately linked to the distinctive nature of language learning, as highlighted by Horwitz et al. (1986). It is a common experience among language learners and can have a notable effect on their learning outcomes (Gregersen, 2005). FLA is claimed to hinder language acquisition, reduce motivation, and negatively impact language learners’ self-esteem and confidence (MacIntyre, 2017; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994).

Various factors can contribute to FLA, including fear of negative evaluation, self-doubt, and a lack of confidence in one’s language abilities (MacIntyre, 2017). It is further noted that anxiety is multi-faceted and that learners who experience foreign language classroom anxiety tend to exhibit a general tendency toward state anxiety during language learning and use (Gregersen et al., 2014; Horwitz, 2017). FLA can be reduced through interventions such as cognitive restructuring, relaxation techniques, and exposure therapy (Horwitz et al., 1986). MacIntyre (2017) has suggested that language anxiety is influenced by internal physiological processes, cognitive and emotional states, the demands of the situation, the presence of others, and other factors that vary over different time scales, and that anxiety has both internal and social dimensions.

Purpose of the Study

The relevant literature showed how the Rosetta Stone application enhanced students’ capacity for learning the English language (Astanina et al., 2019; Hanifa & Santoso, 2022; Ikonta & Ugonna, 2015; Ryabkova, 2020). More precisely, the results demonstrated how the Rosetta Stone application helped students’ speaking and listening abilities (Aryani, 2022; Kurniawan et al., 2021; Pahlepi, 2022; Yurdean & Syafei, 2016). Nevertheless, there hasn’t been enough research done in EFL settings to determine how the Rosetta Stone application affects students’ speaking and listening abilities. The purpose of the current study was to examine the impact of the Rosetta Stone application on EFL students’ speaking and listening abilities, as well as their FLE and FLA, in order to get additional insight into the related literature. The EFL students’ impressions of how the Rosetta Stone application affected their speaking as well as listening abilities, their FLE, and FLA were also qualitatively investigated in order to provide further context for the study’s conclusions. In order to meet the study’s aims, the following research questions were addressed:

To what extent does using the Rosetta Stone application as a supplement to traditional in-class instruction affect EFL students’ listening abilities, speaking abilities, FLE, and FLA?

What are EFL students’ perceptions and attitudes toward using the Rosetta Stone application for language learning?

Method

Participants

The EFL program implemented in this study was specifically designed to enhance the oral proficiency of Chinese EFL students who aspired to prepare for the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) examination. The program aimed to equip students with the linguistic competencies necessary to succeed in the IELTS examination, fostering the development of effective communication skills in English. The participants in this study consisted of 69 intermediate-level Chinese EFL students, ranging in age from 19 to 25 years (M = 21.73, SD = 2.87), who were enrolled in an English language institute in Beijing, China.

Participants were recruited through an announcement on the language school’s bulletin board, inviting students who met the study’s criteria to participate. Those who expressed interest were screened for eligibility, and the eligible participants were randomly assigned to the experimental or control group. More particularly, the participants were selected based on their performance on the IELTS speaking and listening sections, which were administered by the institute. The students had to score between 4.5 and 5.5 on the IELTS test to be eligible for the study. The participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 36) or the control group (n = 33). The two groups were homogeneous in terms of global language proficiency. All the participants had at least 5 years of formal English learning experience and their first language was Mandarin Chinese.

Instruments and Materials

The textbooks used in the in-class instruction were the same for both groups. The in-class instruction was delivered by an experienced EFL instructor who had adequate experience of teaching English as a foreign language. Also, the Rosetta Stone mobile application was used as the supplementary learning tool for the experimental group. The application included a wide range of listening and speaking activities and provided instant feedback to the learners.

Speaking Test

In this study, two sample IELTS speaking tests (Cambridge IELTS, 2017) were administered, one as a pre-test and one as a post-test. The speaking tests were assessed using the IELTS speaking rubric, which is a widely used assessment tool in evaluating English language proficiency. The IELTS speaking rubric consists of four criteria: fluency and coherence, lexical resource, grammatical range and accuracy, and pronunciation. Each criterion is rated on a scale of 0 to 9, with 9 indicating expert proficiency and 0 indicating non-user proficiency. To ensure inter-rater reliability, two independent trained raters assessed the speaking tests, and their ratings were compared using Cohen’s Kappa, which showed a high degree of agreement between the two raters (κ = 0.87).

Listening Test

The present study utilized two IELTS listening tests, each comprising 40 items, which were sourced from the Cambridge IELTS books (Cambridge IELTS, 2017). The tests included four different item types, namely gap filling, diagram labelling, multiple-choice, and short answer. The listening passages were played for 30 min, and the participants were given 10 min to transfer their responses to the answer sheet. It is worth noting that the length of the IELTS listening test was consistent for both the pre-test and post-test.

FLE Scale

The study employed a set of 10 items adapted from Jiang and Dewaele (2019) to assess participants’ enjoyment in language learning. These items comprehensively cover both individual and social dimensions of FLE, in line with the theoretical framework proposed by Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016). Notably, all items were positively worded to ensure a clear focus on the positive aspects of FLE.

During the pilot study, a scale analysis was conducted to evaluate the internal consistency of the items. The results indicated a high level of internal consistency, as reflected by a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .84. This finding attests to the reliability of the measurement tool and suggests that the items in the FLE scale consistently capture participants’ enjoyment in language learning. To provide a comprehensive and cohesive assessment of participants’ overall enjoyment of the language learning experience, responses across all 10 items were aggregated to compute a composite score. This composite score serves as a robust and integrated measure, offering a unified representation of participants’ global FLE. This methodological choice aligns seamlessly with the overarching aim of the study, which seeks a nuanced understanding of the impact of mobile-based language learning on various dimensions, including FLE, within the context of EFL instruction. It enables a comprehensive evaluation of the multifaceted nature of FLE and its interplay with mobile-based language learning.

FLA Scale

Eight items taken from Jiang and Dewaele (2019) were used to assess L2 anxiety in this study. The items represented physical manifestations of anxiety, nervousness, and low self-confidence, taken from the original scale developed by Horwitz et al. (1986). Of the eight items, two were framed to signify low anxiety, while the remaining six reflected high anxiety levels. To ensure that high scores indicated high anxiety for all items, the low anxiety items were reversed. The scale analysis indicated a high level of internal consistency, with a Cronbach alpha of .88.

Semi-Structured Interview

Following the treatment phase, participants from the experimental group were extended an invitation to partake in semi-structured interviews, aiming to glean valuable insights into their experience with the treatment. Each interview was conducted individually and spanned approximately 30 to 50 min in duration. The interviews encompassed a series of open-ended questions (refer to the Appendix) delving into the perceived effectiveness of the treatment, user-friendliness of the application, and their overall involvement in the study. To ensure methodological rigor, a total of nine individuals were selected for the interviews.

Conducted by the instructor, the interviews were meticulously audio-recorded to facilitate subsequent analysis. The amassed data underwent thorough examination through thematic analysis, culminating in the identification of salient themes that emerged from the participants’ responses. This comprehensive approach enriched our understanding of the nuanced impacts of the mobile-based language learning intervention.

Procedure

The primary objective of this EFL program was to enhance the oral skills of Chinese EFL students preparing for the IELTS examination. The instructor for both the experimental and control groups was a highly experienced English language teacher holding a master’s degree in TESOL. The instructor received extensive training to ensure the delivery of course materials was consistent across both groups. She was also responsible for grading in-class speaking and listening assignments. The instructional materials employed for in-class sessions were based on the same textbook and syllabus, and the topics covered were standardized to ensure equivalence.

The control group received customary in-class instruction, while the experimental group received in-class instruction supplemented by the Rosetta Stone application. The treatment duration for both groups spanned 3 months, with students attending the same number of sessions (13 sessions) and each session lasting 90 min, occurring weekly. During the in-class instruction, the instructor adopted a communicative approach to teaching listening and speaking skills. An array of instructional materials, including videos, audio recordings, and role-plays, were utilized to engage students in interactive and authentic language use. The instructor maintained the practice of providing individualized feedback to students and identified their strengths and weaknesses. In-class activities encompassed the following: listening to dialogues and responding to comprehension questions, listening to short lectures and taking notes, listening to news reports and summarizing key points, watching videos and answering content-related questions, participating in pair and small group discussions on various topics, role-playing, delivering presentations, impromptu speeches, and engaging in debates on current events.

For the experimental group, Rosetta Stone was integrated as a supplementary learning tool to reinforce the listening and speaking skills learned during in-class sessions. Students in this group were required to allocate a minimum of 30 min per day, 5 days a week, to work with the Rosetta Stone application, in addition to attending the regular in-class instruction. They accessed the Rosetta Stone application via their own mobile devices. The application featured a wide array of listening and speaking activities, incorporating speech recognition technology and interactive conversations, while providing immediate feedback to learners. The Rosetta Stone training was self-paced and covered a variety of listening and speaking skills. Students were encouraged to use the mobile application in a quiet and focused environment.

To ensure that both groups received identical in-class instruction, including lectures, group discussions, and language practice activities, deliberate efforts were made. In-class instruction was intentionally designed to be uniform for both groups in terms of the topics covered, session duration, and teaching methods employed. The instructor, who was responsible for delivering in-class instruction to both groups, possessed several years of teaching experience and followed the same lesson plans for both groups to maintain consistency. The objective of this approach was to ascertain that any variations in post-test scores could be attributed to the utilization of Rosetta Stone and not differences in the quantity or quality of in-class instruction. Consequently, the control group received the same in-class instruction as the experimental group but did not incorporate Rosetta Stone into their language learning experience. In lieu of Rosetta Stone, the control group students were provided with equivalent audio or video materials for listening or viewing, along with corresponding comprehension questions for assessment.

Both groups were required to maintain time logs to record their out-of-class practice, ensuring that the time allocated for learning activities was equivalent. Students in the control group were instructed to dedicate the same minimum of 30 min per day, 5 days a week, to engage with comparable audio or video materials to ensure comparability in their exposure to English. This practice reinforced the parallel structure of the two groups’ language learning experiences.

Both groups underwent pre- and post-treatment assessments of their listening and speaking skills, utilizing the IELTS listening and speaking sections as the testing instruments. The test scores served as the dependent variables for our analysis. Subsequent to the treatment, participants in the experimental group were also invited to participate in semi-structured interviews to provide feedback on their experience with the treatment. The interviews included open-ended questions regarding the perceived effectiveness of the treatment, the ease of using the application, and their overall satisfaction with the study. All participants received comprehensive information about the study and provided informed consent to participate. The study rigorously preserved the anonymity and confidentiality of all participants throughout the research process.

Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) to determine the effect of Rosetta Stone on the listening, speaking, FLE, and FLA of the experimental group compared to the control group, while controlling for the pre-test scores. The ANCOVA model controlled for the pre-test scores, which were used as a covariate to adjust for any initial differences between the groups (Pallant, 2020). The dependent variables were the post-test scores for listening, speaking, FLE, and FLA, and the independent variable was the treatment condition (experimental or control). Also, paired samples t-tests were used to examine the within-group progress of each group for each variable. The qualitative data (i.e., the interviews) were also transcribed and analyzed thematically to identify common patterns and themes related to the use of Rosetta Stone.

The thematic analysis process involved several structured steps to ensure a rigorous exploration of participants’ responses and a comprehensive understanding of their experiences with the Rosetta Stone application (Thomas, 2003). Initially, the researchers familiarized themselves with the qualitative data obtained from the interviews. This involved reading and re-reading the transcripts to gain a thorough understanding of the participants’ narratives. Following data familiarization, the researchers engaged in initial coding. This process involved systematically identifying and labeling meaningful segments of data relevant to the research objectives. Each excerpt was assigned a code reflecting the content or concept it represented. After initial coding, the researchers engaged in a process of theme generation. This involved organizing and clustering codes into broader themes based on shared content and meaning. Themes were developed inductively from the data rather than being predetermined.

The generated themes were reviewed and refined through an iterative process. This step ensured that themes accurately captured the essence of the participants’ experiences and perceptions regarding the Rosetta Stone application. To enhance the rigor of the analysis, the generated themes were reviewed by multiple researchers involved in the study. Any discrepancies or differing interpretations were discussed, and consensus was reached through collaborative dialogue. Excerpts were carefully selected to represent each identified theme. These excerpts were chosen for their relevance, clarity, and ability to vividly illustrate the essence of the respective theme.

Finally, to validate the accuracy and authenticity of the identified themes and excerpts, member checking was conducted. This involved sharing the emergent themes and excerpts with participants and seeking their feedback and confirmation. The identified themes were integrated into the final qualitative analysis, ensuring they were consistently reflected in the discussion of the study’s findings.

Results

First, descriptive statistics were calculated for all the variables. Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics for the study variables, including speaking and listening abilities, FLE, and FLA scores before and after the intervention in both the experimental and control groups. The mean scores for the pre-test of speaking ability were similar between the experimental (M = 4.45, SD = 0.58) and control groups (M = 4.42, SD = 0.50). However, after the intervention, the experimental group showed a higher mean score (M = 5.02, SD = 0.85) in comparison with the control group (M = 4.55, SD = 0.51). The difference between the two groups was statistically significant, t(67) = 2.56, p = .012 (Cohen’s d = 0.681).

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics of the Study Variables.

	Group	N	Mean	SD	Std. error mean
Speaking1	Experimental	36	4.45	0.58	0.09
Speaking1	Control	33	4.42	0.50	0.08
Speaking2	Experimental	36	5.02	0.85	0.14
Speaking2	Control	33	4.55	0.51	0.08
Listening1	Experimental	36	4.63	0.69	0.11
Listening1	Control	33	4.69	0.61	0.10
Listening2	Experimental	36	5.85	0.75	0.12
Listening2	Control	33	5.08	0.71	0.12
FLE1	Experimental	36	3.87	0.55	0.09
FLE1	Control	33	3.75	0.42	0.07
FLE2	Experimental	36	4.37	0.74	0.12
FLE2	Control	33	3.86	0.66	0.11
FLA1	Experimental	36	4.24	0.83	0.13
FLA1	Control	33	3.95	0.77	0.13
FLA2	Experimental	36	3.28	0.60	0.10
FLA2	Control	33	3.65	0.60	0.10

Regarding listening ability, there was no significant difference between the experimental group (M = 4.63, SD = 0.69) and the control group (M = 4.69, SD = 0.61) before the intervention, t(67) = 0.345, p = .731. However, after the treatment, the experimental group demonstrated a significantly higher mean score (M = 5.85, SD = 0.75) than the control group (M = 5.08, SD = 0.71), t(67) = 2.42, p = .018 (Cohen’s d = 1.05).

In terms of FLE, the mean score for the experimental group was slightly higher than the control group for both pre-test (M = 3.87, SD = 0.55) and post-test (M = 4.37, SD = 0.74), t(67) = 1.35, p = .181 (Cohen’s d = 0.73). Regarding FLA, the mean score for the experimental group was slightly higher than the control group for both pre-test (M = 4.24, SD = 0.83) and post-test (M = 3.28, SD = 0.60), t(67) = 3.19, p = .001 (Cohen’s d = −0.62), indicating that the mobile-based language instruction led to a reduction in FLA for the experimental group.

Prior to performing ANCOVA, essential preliminary checks were conducted to validate the foundational assumptions crucial for the reliability of the statistical tests. Homogeneity of variance was the first assumption under scrutiny. Levene’s test for equality of variances was applied to determine whether the variances of the dependent variables, including listening, speaking, FLE, and FLA showed approximate equality across the experimental and control groups. The criterion for assuming homogeneity of variance was met when the results from Levene’s test were non-significant (p > .05).

The second cardinal assumption, homoscedasticity, which presupposes that the variance of the residuals remains consistent across the groups, was diligently examined. Scatterplots of the standardized residuals against the predicted values derived from the ANCOVA model provided a comprehensive assessment. The meticulous visual inspection of these plots did not unveil any discernible patterns or trends that would suggest any breach of homoscedasticity. Outliers, as potential disruptors of ANCOVA outcomes, were the next focal point. They were scrutinized using boxplots and residual plots. Any data points flagged as outliers were subjected to detailed scrutiny, involving an examination of their accuracy and potential data entry errors. This comprehensive evaluation led to the determination that no extreme outliers or influential cases existed within the dataset.

The last pivotal assumption, the normality of residuals, was assessed by studying histograms and normal probability plots of the standardized residuals. Additionally, the Shapiro-Wilk test of normality was applied to the residual values. In all instances, the distributions of residuals displayed approximate normality. Furthermore, the Shapiro-Wilk test revealed no significant deviations from normality (p > .05). With these rigorous preliminary checks confirming the satisfaction of ANCOVA assumptions, the subsequent analysis was carried out. The ANCOVA model, while controlling for pre-test scores as a covariate, was employed to ascertain whether there existed statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups concerning post-test scores for listening, speaking, FLE, and FLA. This analysis relied on the treatment condition (experimental or control) as the independent variable. These meticulous checks and procedures collectively ensure the robustness and trustworthiness of the ensuing statistical analysis.

Then, ANCOVA was conducted to examine the effect of Rosetta Stone on post-test speaking scores, while controlling for the pre-test scores as a covariate. The results (see Table 2) indicated that there was a significant effect of the between-subjects factor (mobile-based instruction), F(1, 66) = 10.82, p = .002, partial η² = .141, revealing that the mobile-based instruction group had greater post-test speaking scores than the control group.

Table 2.

ANCOVA Results for Speaking.

Source	Type III sum of squares	df	Mean square	F	Sig.	Partial η²
Covariate (pre-test)	13.441	1	13.441	43.433	.000	.397
Between-subjects	3.350	1	3.350	10.827	.002	.141
Within-subjects	20.424	66	0.309

The results of the ANCOVA for the listening are presented in Table 3. The analysis showed a significant main effect of the between-subjects factor (mobile-based instruction) on listening scores, F(1, 66) = 59.837, p < .001, partial η² = .476 indicating that the mobile-based instruction had a substantial impact on improving listening skills among participants after controlling for the pre-test scores.

Table 3.

ANCOVA Results for Listening.

Source	Type III sum of squares	df	Mean square	F	Sig.	Partial η²
Covariate (pre-test)	23.584	1	23.58	123.15	.000	.65
Between-subjects	11.458	1	11.45	59.83	.000	.47
Within-subjects	12.639	66	0.19

In addition, a paired samples t-test was conducted for the experimental group to examine the change in FLE and FLA from pre-test to post-test. The results (Table 4) showed a significant difference in FLE scores, t(35) = −4.52, p < .001, with a mean difference of −0.49 (SD = 0.65). This indicates that there was a decrease in FLE from pre-test to post-test. On the other hand, the results showed a significant difference in FLA scores, t(35) = 11.00, p < .001, with a mean difference of .96 (SD = 0.52). This indicates that there was an increase in FLA from pre-test to post-test.

Table 4.

Paired Samples t-Test for the Experimental Group to Examine the Change in FLE and FLA.

		Paired differences		t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
		Mean	SD	t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Pair 1	FLE1—FLE2	−0.49788	0.65969	−4.528	35	.000
Pair 2	FLA1—FLA2	0.96489	0.52603	11.006	35	.000

Likewise, a paired samples t-test was performed for the control group to examine the change in FLE and FLA (see Table 5). The mean difference in FLE between pre-test (M = 3.76, SD = 0.43) and post-test (M = 3.86, SD = 0.66) was not statistically significant, t(32) = −0.986, p = .332. Nevertheless, the mean difference in FLA between pre-test (M = 3.96, SD = 0.78) and post-test (M = 3.66, SD = 0.61) was statistically significant, t(32) = 2.486, p = .018.

Table 5.

Paired Samples t-Test for the Control Group to Examine the Change in FLE and FLA.

		Paired differences		t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
		Mean	SD	t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Pair 1	FLE1—FLE2	−0.10085	0.58765	−0.986	32	.332
Pair 2	FLA1—FLA2	0.29855	0.68978	2.486	32	.018

Table 6 shows the results of ANCOVA analysis for the effect of mobile-based language instruction on FLE in the post-test while controlling for the pre-test scores. The between-subjects factor (instruction type) also had a significant effect on FLE scores, F(1, 66) = 8.375, p = .005, ηp² = .113, indicating that the mobile-based language instruction led to higher levels of FLE compared to the control group.

Table 6.

ANCOVA Results for FLE.

Source	Type III sum of squares	df	Mean square	F	Sig.	Partial η²
Covariate (pre-test)	8.424	1	8.424	22.347	.000	.253
Between-subjects	3.157	1	3.157	8.375	.005	.113
Within-subjects	24.881	66	0.377

The ANCOVA results for FLA (Table 7) indicated that the between-subjects factor (instructional group) also had a significant effect on the post-test scores of FLA, F(1, 67) = 21.452, p < .001, partial η² = .245. These results suggest that the mobile-based language instruction had a significant effect in reducing FLA compared to the control group.

Table 7.

ANCOVA Results for FLA.

Source	Type III sum of squares	df	Mean square	F	Sig.	Partial η²
Covariate (pre-test)	10.849	1	10.849	51.677	.000	.439
Between-subjects	4.503	1	4.503	21.452	.000	.245
Within-subjects	13.855	66	0.210

Additionally, the qualitative phase of this study delved into the multifaceted perceptions and attitudes of participants toward their experience with the Rosetta Stone application. Employing thematic analysis, we conducted a thorough exploration of participants’ responses, aiming for a comprehensive understanding of their interactions with the tool. Table 8 encapsulates the emergent themes, accompanied by pertinent excerpts from the qualitative dataset.

Table 8.

Themes and Corresponding Excerpts from Qualitative Data.

Theme	Excerpts
Convenience and flexibility	“I liked that I could practice my listening and speaking skills anytime, anywhere, even when I was on the bus or waiting in line.”“I could access it from my phone and computer, so I could practice even when I was at work.”“Being able to use it on both my phone and computer was a game-changer. It meant I could practice during my breaks at work or when I was at home.”
Interactive and engaging	“I liked the pictures and the sound. It made me feel like I was really in the environment.”“I enjoyed the variety of activities, like the speaking exercises where I had to repeat what I heard.”“What I loved most were the interactive activities, especially the speaking exercises. Repetition was key in improving my pronunciation.”
Complementary to in-class instruction	“Rosetta Stone helped me to practice what I learned in class. It was a good way to reinforce what I learned and build my confidence.”“I found that using Rosetta Stone outside of class helped me to remember what we had covered in class and gave me more practice opportunities.”“I can’t stress how much it complemented my classroom experience. It helped me remember class content and provided additional practice I needed.”
Improvements in language learning	“I noticed that my pronunciation improved, and I could understand native speakers better.”“Using Rosetta Stone helped me to become more comfortable speaking English, and I feel like my overall proficiency has improved.”“Using Rosetta Stone, I became more comfortable speaking English, and I feel like my overall proficiency has improved significantly.”
Enhanced foreign language enjoyment	“It was fun to practice English using Rosetta Stone, and I found that I looked forward to using it every day.”“I appreciated the convenience of being able to practice English whenever and wherever I wanted, which made language learning less stressful.”“Practicing with Rosetta Stone was genuinely fun, and it became something I looked forward to daily.”
Reduced foreign language anxiety	“I used to be really nervous when speaking English, but using Rosetta Stone helped me to feel more comfortable. It was like practicing with a friend.”“I liked that I could repeat the exercises until I felt more confident, and that helped to reduce my anxiety when speaking English.”“The ability to repeat exercises and build confidence reduced my anxiety about speaking English.”

These themes arose organically from the participants’ narratives, providing rich insights into their encounters with the Rosetta Stone application. It is important to note that while the frequency of theme mentions varied among participants, all themes consistently surfaced in the data.

A central theme woven through participants’ reflections was the commendable convenience and adaptability that the Rosetta Stone application offered. Many participants lauded the opportunity to hone their listening and speaking skills at their own convenience, regardless of temporal or geographical constraints. The accessibility of the program through both mobile devices and computers seamlessly integrated it into their daily routines, even within professional contexts. This flexibility not only facilitated consistent practice but also contributed to reduced stress levels, rendering language learning a more gratifying pursuit.

Additionally, participants emphatically underscored the interactive and captivating nature of the Rosetta Stone application. The amalgamation of visual and auditory components created an immersive language learning milieu. The diverse array of activities, especially the speaking exercises that necessitated the repetition of spoken phrases, added depth and engagement to their language practice. This theme underscores the critical role of dynamic and interactive content in enhancing listening and speaking skills.

Furthermore, participants acknowledged Rosetta Stone’s complementary role in their language learning odyssey. Utilizing the application beyond the classroom environment allowed them to fortify their in-class learning, fortify their confidence, and elevate their overall language proficiency. This finding resonates with the concept of blended learning, wherein technology augments traditional instruction, providing learners with valuable practice opportunities beyond the confines of the classroom.

The qualitative dataset consistently reflected marked improvements in listening and speaking proficiencies attributable to the usage of Rosetta Stone. Participants reported refined pronunciation and heightened comprehension of native speakers. They also articulated an augmented confidence in conversing in English, indicative of a positive impact on their overall language competency. These findings underscore the potential advantages of technology-facilitated language learning in skill augmentation.

A noteworthy outcome of Rosetta Stone usage was the heightened enjoyment participants derived from their English language practice. Many expressed a sense of delight and eager anticipation in their daily language pursuits. The convenience of practicing at their preferred times and locations contributed to a less fraught language learning experience, nurturing a more affirmative attitude toward learning. Lastly, several participants shared how Rosetta Stone alleviated their anxiety associated with speaking English. They likened the experience to practicing with a supportive companion and valued the opportunity to repeat exercises until they felt sufficiently self-assured. This reduction in anxiety is pivotal, as it fosters a more relaxed and encouraging environment for language acquisition.

It is worth noting that after conducting interviews with 30 participants, it was observed that no substantially new themes or unique perspectives were emerging from subsequent interviews. Instead, the discussions began to reiterate similar experiences and viewpoints. This indicated that a comprehensive understanding of participants’ experiences with the Rosetta Stone application had been achieved, and data saturation had been reached. As a result, additional interviews were deemed unnecessary, affirming the adequacy of the sample size in capturing the breadth and depth of participant perspectives.

Overall, the qualitative results suggest that participants found Rosetta Stone to be a convenient, flexible, interactive, and engaging tool that complemented their in-class instruction and helped improve their language skills, enjoyment, confidence in using English, and reduced their L2 anxiety. In general, the qualitative findings support the quantitative results and suggest that mobile-based language learning tools like Rosetta Stone can be a useful supplementary method for enhancing EFL learning outcomes.

Discussion

The current study explored the effect of the Rosetta Stone application on the speaking and listening performance of EFL students, drawing on Vygotsky’s (1984) social constructivism of learning theory. The results showed that the mobile-based instruction improved EFL students’ speaking abilities and surpassed its conventional counterpart in that area. The results are consistent with the findings of Aryani (2022), who substantiated the Rosetta Stone application’s beneficial effects on EFL students’ speaking abilities. The results also concur with Kurniawan et al.’s (2021) findings, who corroborated the Rosetta Stone application’s positive effects on EFL students’ listening abilities. From a sociocultural theory perspective, language development is enhanced through social interaction, and technology can provide learners with opportunities for interaction with authentic language input and speakers (González-Lloret, 2020). Furthermore, the use of technology can provide students with more control over their learning process and enable them to receive feedback on their progress, which can motivate them to continue practicing and improving their language skills (H. L. Hsu et al., 2021; Peng et al., 2021).

The abovementioned results could be attributed to the Rosetta Stone application’s impact of providing the learners with a novel experience that encouraged the learners to engage in more engaging communicative speaking and listening activities with their partners and consequently improve their speaking and listening skills. The online nature of the Rosetta Stone application empowered learners to engage in conversations with their partners at their convenience, potentially fostering a beneficial impact on their speaking and listening skills. The findings related to the spatial and temporal features of the application are also in line with the MALL-supported findings of Cakmak (2019) and Lei et al. (2022).

The Rosetta Stone application served as a mediational artifact to mediate the learners’ speaking and listening performance in accordance with Vygotsky’s (1984) social constructivism of learning. The learners were then additionally mediated by their peers using the Rosetta Stone application. The learners engaged in interactive speaking and listening exercises with their peers while using the Rosetta Stone application, which could aid them in controlling both their own and their classmates’ speaking and listening abilities. The interactive speaking activities helped the students gradually develop their ability to self-regulate their speaking and listening skills. The students who were successful in controlling their behavior were able to function independently and complete speaking and listening assignments without assistance from other students. The results were based on the observation that the Rosetta Stone application users achieved their goal of self-regulating speaking and listening performance more successfully than traditional learners. Such findings are partially in agreement with those of Lantolf and Thorne (2006).

The finding that the mobile-based instruction improved EFL students’ listening abilities is in line with previous research that has shown the potential of technology tools in enhancing listening skill (Aldukhayel, 2021; Dizon, 2020; Kam et al., 2020). One possible explanation for this finding is that Rosetta Stone provides learners with interactive and engaging listening activities that help them develop their listening comprehension skills. In addition, the use of mobile technology in language learning can enhance the learners’ motivation and engagement (Kukulska-Hulme & Viberg, 2018; Sung et al., 2015), which may have contributed to the improvement in listening abilities. As learners engage with the language in a more natural and interactive way, they may become more interested and invested in the learning process (Shadiev et al., 2017), leading to improved listening abilities. Moreover, Rosetta Stone’s use of visual and audio aids can help learners develop their ability to process and understand spoken language, which may have contributed to the improvement in listening abilities. The program uses images, videos, and audio recordings to reinforce the learners’ understanding of spoken language, which may have contributed to the learners’ improved listening comprehension abilities.

Also, it was found that the mobile-based language instruction enhanced foreign language enjoyment of the participants. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), individuals are more likely to engage in activities that they find intrinsically motivating and enjoyable (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Intrinsic motivation arises from a sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and it has been shown to be a powerful predictor of academic achievement and development (Ryan & Deci, 2000). From this perspective, mobile-based language instruction via Rosetta Stone has the potential to foster FLE by providing learners with a sense of autonomy and control over their learning process (Resnik & Schallmoser, 2019; Zheng & Zhou, 2023). Having allowed learners to access language learning materials anytime and anywhere, mobile-based instruction enables students to learn at their own pace and schedule. This flexibility can contribute to learners’ sense of autonomy and increase their motivation to learn (Garcia & Pintrich, 1996).

Moreover, mobile-based language instruction could have provided learners with opportunities for competency development. According to the Flow Theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), individuals might experience a state of flow in case they are engaged in doing an activity that is challenging but still within their skill level. Rosetta Stone as a technology device can provide learners with a range of activities that are appropriately challenging and can be adapted to their level of proficiency, allowing them to develop their language skills and experience a sense of achievement and competence (Kern, 2006). Likewise, mobile-based language instruction can also enhance learners’ sense of relatedness, which is another key component of intrinsic motivation. Offering learners with access to a community of learners and native speakers, mobile-based language instruction can create opportunities for social interaction and communication in the target language, which can boost learners’ sense of relatedness and motivation to learn (Lan & Lin, 2016; Persson & Nouri, 2018).

Another finding of the study was that Rosetta Stone reduced foreign language anxiety of the participants. This outcome is in line with the existing literature that suggests that technology-based language instruction can help reduce anxiety among language learners (Lee & Drajati, 2019; Lee & Lee, 2020). Based on the Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen, 1981), anxiety can act as a filter that blocks language input from being processed and learned. This filter can impede language acquisition, and ultimately prevent language learning. As such, reducing anxiety levels in language learners seems vital for improving language learning outcomes. Mobile-based language instruction may help reduce FLA in several ways. First, mobile devices provide learners with a sense of autonomy and control over their learning, which can reduce anxiety levels (Peng et al., 2021, 2022). The ability to access language learning materials anytime and anywhere, and the opportunity to learn at one’s own pace, can enhance learners’ sense of control over their learning environment (P. L. Liu & Chen, 2015; Peng et al., 2021), thereby reducing feelings of helplessness and anxiety. This is also consistent with the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) which posits that learners are more motivated and engaged when they feel autonomous and in control of their learning process (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

Furthermore, mobile-based language instruction offered learners a chance to get involved in immersive and contextualized language learning experiences that can reduce anxiety levels (Loewen et al., 2019). Studies have demonstrated that anxiety levels are lower when learners are exposed to language in a naturalistic context, where the language is presented in meaningful and authentic situations (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011; Ockey et al., 2017). Mobile-based language instruction often employs interactive multimedia materials such as videos, audio recordings, and images, which can create a more immersive and contextualized learning environment (Lin et al., 2021), and thus lessen anxiety levels.

The qualitative results of this study also indicated that the use of Rosetta Stone as a supplementary method for EFL learning can have several benefits. The themes of convenience and flexibility, interactivity and engagement, complementarity, and improvements in language learning align with existing theoretical and empirical literature (e.g., Kukulska-Hulme & Viberg, 2018; Mahdi, 2018; Van Praag & Sanchez, 2015; Wu, 2015), providing extra empirical support for the effectiveness of mobile technology in L2 learning. The results of the qualitative data generally showed that the EFL students had favorable opinions of the Rosetta Stone application-based listening and speaking exercises. In line with the findings, similar studies, such as L. Hsu (2013) and Loewen et al. (2019), also confirmed learners’ engagement in MALL-based courses. The many elements of the Rosetta Stone application, such as the regular speaking and listening exercises it provided, may have contributed to the positive opinions of the EFL learners by encouraging their collaborative speaking and listening. As a result, the learners’ speaking and listening abilities increased. The findings in this regard are in harmony with those of Aryani (2022) and Pahlepi (2022) who corroborated the learners’ positive perceptions of the use of the Rosetta Stone application for speaking and listening activities.

Another factor contributing to the students’ favorable opinions of the Rosetta Stone application may be their belief that they were not constrained by space and time when communicating with other users. It is thought that speaking with peers increased learners’ interest in communicative activities, which was possible using the Rosetta Stone application. Through these communications, students were introduced to new terms and expressions, which improved their participation in speaking and listening exercises. The students who used the Rosetta Stone application had more opportunity to interact with their classmates than the traditional students, which may have further influenced the students’ favorable opinions of the Rosetta Stone application. The findings could be partially in harmony with those of Ikonta and Ugonna (2015) who revealed the learners’ positive perceptions of using the Rosetta Stone application for language learning purposes.

Drawing on the insights of Vygotsky (1986) and the work of Lantolf and Thorne (2006), it is plausible that students’ proficiency in speaking and listening was enhanced by the dual roles they assumed - that is, each student was perceived to function as both a learner and an expert. In other words, while the learners picked up different English language items from their peers, they also instructed their classmates new words and expressions through interactive speaking and listening exercises. The learners acted as a more capable learner and a less capable learner in interactive speaking and listening activities. The different roles the learners got depended on the kind of the listening and speaking activities which some learners possessed the required abilities and they could share them with their classmates via interactive speaking and listening activities using the Rosetta Stone application. This further encouraged the learners to engage in more interesting interactive speaking and listening exercises with their partners.

The results might also reflect the students’ greater desire for interactive speaking and listening exercises using the Rosetta Stone application. The students felt that using the Rosetta Stone application was considerably more stimulating than interacting with their peers in class. Further research, such that by Rahimi and Fathi (2022), proposed that these conversations impacted the learners’ enthusiasm in other activities. As a result, interacting with classmates appears to offer the advantage of enhancing students’ enthusiasm to interact and converse with other learners. Students are more inclined to participate in discussions and find the tasks given to them to be more fascinating when they feel that there is a real requirement for it, which was evident in the present study.

The Rosetta Stone application is argued to have immersed the learners in a great online environment where they could connect with their peers constantly and improve their speaking and listening skills. The current study found that the EFL students engaged in interactive speaking and listening activities with their peers, which helped to develop their speaking and listening skills. These speaking and listening exercises are supposed to assist students improve their capacity to self-regulate their communication abilities. Vygotsky (1984) asserted that students with different skills and abilities can help one another achieve their highest degree of functioning. By fostering positive opinions of the Rosetta Stone application for cooperative speaking and listening tasks, the present study’s Rosetta Stone application course helped the students engage in collaborative speaking and listening tasks (other-regulation) more appropriately.

Conclusions, Implications, and Limitations

The focus of the current study was on how the Rosetta Stone application was used to help EFL learners improve their speaking and listening abilities. The results supported Vygotsky’s social constructivism by showing that the Rosetta Stone application class was more successful than the traditional class at enhancing the speaking and listening abilities of EFL learners. The findings of the present study also displayed that the EFL learners had positive perceptions of the use of the Rosetta Stone application for their interactive speaking and listening activities.

Additionally, it was found that the mobile-based instruction via Rosetta Stone not only improved participants’ speaking and listening abilities but also enhanced their foreign language enjoyment and reduced their foreign language anxiety. Participants reported that using Rosetta Stone made language learning more enjoyable and less stressful, which may have contributed to their motivation to continue using the program. These results are significant as they highlight the potential benefits of mobile-based instruction via Rosetta Stone beyond just the improvement of language skills, suggesting that technology can be an effective tool to promote positive affective states in language learning, which can ultimately lead to better learning outcomes.

The contacts that the students had with their peers through the Rosetta Stone application, which they thought were more positive than interaction in class, may be closely attributed to the outcomes of the study. The qualitative findings also provided insights into the participants’ perceptions and attitudes toward using Rosetta Stone, highlighting the convenience, flexibility, interactivity, complementarity of the application to in-class instruction, enhanced enjoyment, and reduced language anxiety.

The findings pointed to a number of educational implications. First, the use of mobile-based language learning tools like Rosetta Stone can be a useful supplement to in-class instruction, providing learners with additional opportunities to practice and reinforce their language skills as well as positive affective outcomes such as enhanced enjoyment and reduced anxiety. Second, these tools can be especially beneficial for busy learners who may not have the time or resources to attend traditional language courses. Third, the interactive and engaging nature of these tools can enhance learners’ motivation and engagement, leading to more positive learning outcomes. Language teachers may consider incorporating mobile-based instruction as a supplement to traditional in-class instruction to provide students with additional opportunities for language practice and to promote positive affective outcomes. Moreover, language learners may benefit from using mobile-based language learning applications as a way to increase their exposure to the target language and to practice language skills outside of the classroom. The Rosetta Stone application is suggested to be utilized in collaborative EFL speaking and listening classes since it improves the speaking and listening abilities of EFL students.

To enhance the speaking and listening skills of EFL students, EFL educators are encouraged to promote the use of the Rosetta Stone application for engaging in interactive speaking and listening activities. It is advised that EFL teachers give EFL students engaging participatory speaking and listening tasks using the Rosetta Stone application. This makes it possible for EFL students to participate in more interpretative and collaborative speaking and listening activities, which successfully improve their speaking and listening skills. By using the Rosetta Stone application designed exclusively for interactive speaking and listening exercises, EFL students might have and receive more partner speaking and listening mediations on the speaking and listening tasks.

Despite its contributions, this research has some limitations that need to be acknowledged. First, the study was conducted in a specific EFL context of China with a relatively small sample size, which affects the generalizability of the results. Second, the researcher only examined the short-term effects of using Rosetta Stone, and it is unclear whether the improvements in language abilities would be maintained over a longer period. Finally, the study only focused on listening and speaking skills, and future researchers should investigate the effectiveness of Rosetta Stone in improving other language skills such as reading and writing.

Footnotes

Appendix

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Funding Project of Discipline Construction for Private Colleges and Universities of Henan Province, China in 2020-English Major (Document Issued by Henan Department of Education: [2020]162).

Consent to Participate

Informed consent was obtained from all the participants in this study.

ORCID iD

Yun Bai

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

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