Abstract
Urban green spaces (UGS) play a critical role in sustainable urban development, yet their behavioral impacts remain insufficiently examined in cities of the Global South. This study examines how accessibility, perceived quality, and equity of UGS influence pro-environmental behavior (PEB) among residents of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior, Attention Restoration Theory, and the Social-Ecological Systems framework, survey data from 400 residents were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling and Necessary Condition Analysis. The results show that access to green spaces is strongly associated with environmental awareness, pro-environmental attitudes, and sense of community, which in turn predict higher levels of PEB. Environmental awareness, social cohesion, and perceived fairness emerge as necessary conditions for behavioral engagement, while psychological restoration alone does not directly lead to action. Compared with findings from developed urban contexts, collective identity and spatial justice exert a stronger influence on environmental behavior in Phnom Penh. These findings contribute to sustainability theory by clarifying context-specific behavioral mechanisms
Plain Language Summary
This study looks at the importance of urban green spaces (like parks and gardens) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, and how they affect people’s behaviors that are good for the environment. Urban green spaces are crucial for making cities healthier and more sustainable, but they are often lacking in developing countries. The researchers wanted to understand how the accessibility, quality, and fairness of these green spaces influence pro-environmental behavior, which is when people take actions to help the environment. They gathered data from 400 residents and used various scientific methods to analyze it. The findings revealed that when people have good access to green spaces and feel that these spaces are fair and beneficial for the community, they tend to be more aware of environmental issues. This heightened awareness encourages stronger community bonds and motivates people to behave in ways that are better for the environment. Additionally, the study found that awareness, feelings of restoration from nature, and social connections are essential for encouraging these positive behaviors. Interestingly, in Phnom Penh, factors like collective identity and fairness play a more significant role compared to cities in wealthier countries. Overall, this study sheds light on how specific aspects of urban green spaces can foster more environmentally friendly behaviors and provides guidance on how to plan these spaces in a way that is equitable and beneficial for the community.
Keywords
Introduction
Urban green spaces (UGSs), including parks, gardens, and urban forests, are increasingly recognized as essential to the ecological, social, and psychological health of cities. They aid environmental sustainability by regulating urban temperatures, improving air quality, supporting biodiversity, and boosting residents’ mental health, recreation, and social cohesion (Kruize et al., 2019; D. Wang et al., 2024). In contemporary urban policy debates, UGSs are often described as offering a “triple dividend” of environmental quality, public health, and social equity, underscoring their relevance to sustainable urban planning. However, despite this growing recognition, substantial disparities persist in the provision and accessibility of green infrastructure, particularly in rapidly urbanizing regions. This issue is especially evident in cities of the Global South, where population growth and socioeconomic inequality place intense pressure on limited ecological resources. Empirical evidence shows that these cities receive only about half the cooling and climate-regulating benefits of green spaces observed in the Global North (Y. Li et al., 2024), reflecting deep inequities in distribution, access, and maintenance that shape residents’ environmental perceptions and behaviors. Although the physical and ecological advantages of UGSs are well established, their behavioral dimensions, particularly how exposure to and perceptions of green spaces influence pro-environmental behavior (PEB), remain theoretically underdeveloped. Existing research has largely examined psychological, social, or environmental determinants of sustainable behavior in isolation rather than as components of an integrated system (Nguyen & Tran, 2025; Steg & Vlek, 2009; Tian & Liu, 2022). This disciplinary fragmentation constrains understanding of how cognitive, emotional, and social mechanisms interact to shape sustainable behavior in urban contexts (Dioba et al., 2024; Topal et al., 2021). While the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) provides a strong foundation for explaining environmental intentions, it insufficiently captures the restorative, affective, and contextual dimensions that characterize human engagement with UGSs. To address this limitation, the present study integrates complementary theoretical perspectives. The Attention Restoration Theory (ART) emphasizes affective and cognitive recovery processes that enhance individuals’ moral and emotional engagement with the environment, whereas the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework situates these psychological processes within broader structures of governance, equity, and community resilience. Despite their conceptual alignment, these frameworks have rarely been synthesized into a cohesive model. Their integration offers a multilevel explanation of PEB that connects cognitive motivation (TPB), emotional restoration (ART), and socio-structural context (SES), providing a more comprehensive understanding of environmentally responsible behavior in cities.
Recent evidence underscores the need for such integration. For instance, Lahoti et al. (2024) found that green-space availability in Indian cities strengthened residents’ connection to nature, which in turn predicted higher PEB. Similarly, Flecke et al. (2024) demonstrated that brief interactions with urban greenery heightened environmental concern, while Lin et al. (2026) revealed that sociocultural context moderates the relationship between nature contact and behavioral response. However, in Southeast Asia, empirical research has mainly focused on ecological and inclusionary aspects of UGSs (Sahakian et al., 2020), with limited exploration of behavioral pathways that link access to environmental responsibility. This gap remains particularly relevant in contexts where rapid urbanization and social inequality intersect. Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia, exemplifies these challenges. The city faces severe environmental degradation and extremely limited green-space provision, approximately 1.1 m2 per person, well below international standards (Yen et al., 2017). Residents recognize the social and ecological importance of UGSs but continue to face barriers to accessibility and quality (Bertrais & Beckwith, 2024). What remains unclear is whether such perceptions translate into measurable behavioral change and how structural inequalities mediate this relationship. Accordingly, this study aims to develop and empirically test an integrated framework that combines TPB, ART, and SES to explain how cognitive, emotional, and social-ecological mechanisms jointly shape PEB. In this framework, TPB captures the cognitive-intentional aspect of environmental action, ART accounts for the restorative and affective dimensions, and SES contextualizes these processes within systems of social equity, collective identity, and governance. Rather than applying these frameworks independently, the study conceptualizes them hierarchically, with cognitive intentions reinforced by restorative experiences and enacted within socially embedded structures. This integration enhances theoretical coherence and provides a holistic foundation for understanding sustainable behavior in urban settings.
Building on this framework, the study pursues three objectives: (1) to examine how access to and perceived quality of UGSs influence residents’ environmental awareness, sense of community, and pro-environmental attitudes; (2) to test the mediating mechanisms linking these constructs to behavioral outcomes using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) and Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA); and (3) to identify how findings from Phnom Penh refine and extend the theoretical boundaries of TPB, ART, and SES in contexts characterized by inequity and rapid urban transformation.
Literature Review
Urban green spaces (UGSs) are widely recognized for their ecological, aesthetic, and social functions, including their influence on environmental awareness and well-being (Kabisch et al., 2015; Wolch et al., 2014; Zheng & Yang, 2023). Recent research has shifted toward their behavioral implications, showing that interaction with green environments can foster pro-environmental behavior (PEB) and nature connectedness (Flecke et al., 2024; Lahoti et al., 2024; Whitburn et al., 2019). However, existing studies often examine cognitive, emotional, or structural drivers in isolation, limiting understanding of how these mechanisms interact (Chishima et al., 2023; Nguyen & Tran, 2025; Steg & Vlek, 2009). This fragmentation is particularly evident in rapidly urbanizing contexts of the Global South, where unequal access to green infrastructure complicates behavioral outcomes (Fry & Fischer, 2023; Y. Li et al., 2024; Sahakian et al., 2020). These limitations underscore the need for a more integrated perspective on UGS–behavior relationships.
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) explains environmental action through attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991). In urban contexts, these factors are shaped by accessibility, social expectations, and perceived capacity to act (Hidalgo-Crespo & Amaya-Rivas, 2024; S. Li et al., 2023; Phang & Ilham, 2023). Empirical evidence links stronger attitudes and perceived control to behaviors such as recycling and energy conservation (Boca & Saraçlı, 2019; Ceylan & Özbakır, 2022; Makhitha, 2025). In collectivist settings, normative pressures may reinforce these relationships, although effects vary by context (Deuß et al., 2025; Ly & Ly, 2022). However, TPB remains primarily cognitive and offers limited insight into how environmental experiences shape motivation prior to intention formation (Ajzen, 2020; Jia et al., 2025).
Attention Restoration Theory (ART) addresses this gap by emphasizing the cognitive and affective benefits of nature exposure. It posits that natural environments restore attention, reduce stress, and strengthen emotional connection (Jiang et al., 2023; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). Such restorative experiences can support reflective awareness and intrinsic motivation for pro-environmental engagement (Dong et al., 2024; Gao et al., 2024; Luo & Zhang, 2025). In dense urban environments such as Phnom Penh, restoration has been identified as a relevant pathway linking nature exposure to environmental concern. However, evidence remains mixed, as restoration does not consistently translate into observable behavior, suggesting the role of additional cognitive and social conditions (Flecke et al., 2024; Lahoti et al., 2024).
The Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework extends these perspectives by situating behavior within broader institutional and social contexts (Berkes et al., 2008; Shemshad et al., 2025). From this view, PEB reflects not only individual intention or emotional experience but also governance, equity, and collective capacity. Access to well-maintained UGSs can strengthen place attachment and shared stewardship, while unequal distribution may undermine collective responsibility (Kahane et al., 2025; Kifayatullah et al., 2025; Warren et al., 2023). Recent studies further indicate that perceived fairness and governance quality condition whether environmental concern translates into action, although these effects remain context-dependent (Jian et al., 2020; Korpilo et al., 2022).
These arguments indicate that no single framework sufficiently explains how UGSs influence pro-environmental behavior. TPB captures intentional processes, ART highlights effective and cognitive pathways, and SES emphasizes structural conditions. This synthesis suggests that these perspectives are complementary rather than competing, collectively supporting a multi-level understanding of behavior shaped by interacting motivational, experiential, and contextual factors, while remaining sensitive to variation across settings.
Hypotheses Development
Access to urban green spaces (UGSs) has been widely associated with improved environmental awareness and emotional connection to nature. Recent studies show that equitable UGS access correlates with higher ecological sensitivity and perceived fairness, especially in rapidly growing cities with spatial inequalities (Blaschke et al., 2024; Bressane et al., 2024). Improved accessibility and thoughtful design are linked to increased civic participation, social cohesion, and eco-friendly routines such as recycling and energy-saving (Teimouri et al., 2023; Terefe & Hou, 2024). Within the TPB–ART–SES framework, accessibility boosts perceived behavioral control (TPB), fosters restorative experiences that increase reflective awareness (ART), and enhances perceptions of social equity and shared governance (SES). Hence, this study proposes that:
Beyond attitudes, consistent interaction with accessible UGSs has been found to correspond with greater engagement in everyday sustainable practices. Proximity to parks and open spaces is linked with participation in urban greening, waste reduction, and community stewardship (Edeigba et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024). According to SES principles, equitable access to green space can reduce social and infrastructural barriers, facilitating collective ecological initiatives and the diffusion of pro-environmental norms (Edeigba et al., 2024). Comparative evidence suggests that spatial inclusivity is associated with greater perceived environmental responsibility (Blaschke et al., 2024). Therefore, this study suggests that:
Attitudes represent the proximal cognitive determinant of behavior within the TPB. Individuals who express more positive environmental attitudes tend to report higher engagement in sustainable consumption and conservation actions (Cayolla et al., 2023; L. Liu & Tobias, 2024). In collectivist contexts such as Cambodia, shared moral expectations and social reputation further reinforce the consistency between environmental attitudes and self-reported behaviors (Rahmawati et al., 2024). Meta-analytical findings confirm that favorable attitudes are associated with greater behavioral persistence, even when situational resources are limited (L. Liu & Tobias, 2024). Hence, this study posits that:
Psychological restoration provides an affective and cognitive bridge between nature exposure and environmental engagement. ART posits that natural settings replenish attentional resources and elicit emotional recovery, both of which support reflective and prosocial thinking (Jiang et al., 2023; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). Empirical studies show that biodiverse, multisensory environments correspond with greater mental recovery, empathy, and nature connectedness (Ghavimi et al., 2025; Xu et al., 2025). Restorative experiences thus create psychological readiness for sustained ecological concern (Stoltz & Schaffer, 2018). Consequently, this study proposes that:
The perceived quality of UGSs shapes behavioral outcomes by influencing satisfaction, trust, and collective ownership. High-quality, inclusive spaces are related to stronger stewardship norms and neighborhood cohesion, while neglected areas often correspond with disengagement and lower collective efficacy (Dmitrović et al., 2025; Teimouri et al., 2023). Systematic reviews show that vegetation diversity, safety, and maintenance quality are linked with higher perceptions of environmental justice and civic participation (Xu et al., 2025). Therefore, the study suggests that:
Contact with UGSs also facilitates experiential learning that supports environmental cognition. Environmental awareness (EA) often develops through repeated interaction with local ecosystems, functioning as a cognitive outcome of direct nature experience (Veckalne et al., 2025). Access to diverse and inclusive UGSs is linked with informal environmental education, biodiversity appreciation, and participatory learning (Edeigba et al., 2024; Vidal et al., 2025). Accordingly, this study proposes that:
Environmental awareness, in turn, represents a cognitive antecedent of pro-environmental behavior. Studies suggest that individuals with greater environmental knowledge and awareness tend to report stronger conservation intentions and sustainable practices (Dong et al., 2024; Guo et al., 2025). Experiential contact within UGSs may reinforce this association by transforming awareness into motivation through moral reflection (Blaschke et al., 2024). Hence, the study suggests that:
From a social-ecological perspective, UGSs function as spaces for social interaction and belonging. Accessible green areas can strengthen the sense of community (SOC) by providing shared venues for recreation and collective engagement (Dash & Prabhu, 2024; Lam, 2024). In cities experiencing rapid growth and social fragmentation, such as Phnom Penh, equitable access to green spaces may correspond with stronger social ties and neighborhood identification (Phillips et al., 2023). Therefore, the study proposes that:
A strong sense of community often coincides with higher levels of cooperation and environmental participation. Empirical evidence links community cohesion with volunteerism, stewardship, and shared environmental responsibility (Veckalne et al., 2025; Vidal et al., 2025). Inclusive UGSs that encourage interpersonal interaction may thus correspond with greater engagement in ecological behaviors (Blaschke et al., 2024). Accordingly, the study suggests that:
Community ecological resilience (ERC) represents an adaptive capacity that supports collective responses to environmental challenges. SES research shows that resilient communities tend to maintain environmental norms through adaptive learning and shared governance (Blaschke et al., 2024; Kifayatullah et al., 2025). Urban green infrastructure contributes to resilience by providing physical and social spaces for collaboration and local adaptation (Kumar et al., 2025; Marković et al., 2025). Hence, the study proposes that:
Environmental awareness serves as a potential mediator linking UGS access and behavior. Studies indicate that awareness mediates the relationship between environmental exposure and sustainable action by enhancing moral and cognitive engagement (Guo & Khatibi, 2024; Su et al., 2022). Further research shows green environments boost moral and cognitive engagement with sustainability, strengthening the link between environmental contact and sustainability action (Kong et al., 2023; Lingos et al., 2025). Awareness acts as a bridge between environmental exposure and actions such as conservation, policy support, and civic involvement by triggering moral norms and values, and self-regulation (Yoon et al., 2025). Educational and participatory UGS experiences further reinforce environmental values by embedding stewardship into daily routines, fostering lasting sustainability among learner communities (Husin et al., 2025; Kong et al., 2023). Therefore, this study proposes that:
Access to nearby, well-maintained green spaces facilitates communal interaction, trust, and reciprocity, fostering shared responsibility for the environment (Pasanen et al., 2023; Ramos-Vidal & de la Ossa, 2024; X. Wang et al., 2023). Such cohesion supports diffusion of sustainable norms and collective participation, with empirical evidence showing that social trust and community attachment mediate the pathways between environmental settings and pro-environmental behavior (Nasr et al., 2022; Ng & Chow, 2023). Accordingly, this study proposes that:
Empirical research shows that exposure to green environments strengthens positive environmental attitudes, which in turn predict sustainable behaviors, including recycling, energy conservation, and civic environmental participation (Boca & Saraçlı, 2019; Ceylan & Özbakır, 2022; Makhitha, 2025). Furthermore, studies indicate that changes in attitude serve as a bridge between environmental encounters and behavior, suggesting that interaction with green spaces can transform mere exposure into enduring motivation to act (Han, 2023; Weng et al., 2023; Whitburn et al., 2019). Hence, attitudes act as the cognitive bridge through which contact with urban green environments fosters personal environmental responsibility and behavioral engagement. Accordingly, this study proposes that:
Methodological Approach
This study adopted a quantitative research design to investigate the relationships between urban green spaces (UGS) and pro-environmental behavior (PEB) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, within an integrated theoretical framework combining the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Attention Restoration Theory (ART), and Social-Ecological Systems (SES). Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was selected for its predictive power, flexibility with complex constructs, and ability to handle non-parametric data, making it ideal for exploring mediating relationships in this context (J. F. Hair et al., 2021). Unlike Covariance-Based SEM (CB-SEM), which requires large, normally distributed samples and focuses on theory confirmation, PLS-SEM accommodates smaller datasets and both reflective and formative constructs, aligning with this study’s exploratory goals and sample characteristics (J. F. Hair et al., 2021). Additionally, Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA) was employed to complement PLS-SEM by identifying critical conditions necessary for PEB, combining necessity and sufficiency logic to enhance analytical rigor (Cassia & Magno, 2024). This dual approach strengthens the validation of direct and mediating pathways, providing a comprehensive understanding of UGS-PEB dynamics. SmartPLS4 was used for PLS-SEM analysis, while NCA was conducted using the CE-FDH method to assess effect sizes and significance (Ringle et al., 2022). Together, this combined analytical strategy enables a nuanced assessment of both the strength and necessity of cognitive, affective, and structural conditions underlying pro-environmental behavior.
Sampling and Data Collection
This study examined how UGS influences PEB among Phnom Penh residents, a rapidly urbanizing Global South city with a 2025 estimated population of 2.1 million. A purposive sampling strategy targeted four districts, Chamkar Mon (high-income, moderate UGS), Doun Penh (mixed-income, high UGS), 7 Makara (middle-income, low UGS), and Russey Keo (low-income, limited UGS), to capture socioeconomic and UGS access diversity. These districts reflect Phnom Penh’s varied urbanization levels and demographic profiles, ensuring a broad representation of attitudes and experiences. The sample size was determined using Soper (2024) calculator, requiring a minimum of 256 respondents for 0.95 statistical power (α = .05, effect size = 0.3) with 48 observable variables and 8 latent constructs. To account for non-response, incomplete data, and attrition, 435 questionnaires were distributed (70% buffer), yielding 400 valid responses (92% response rate), exceeding the minimum threshold for robust analysis. This conservative approach mitigated risks of underrepresentation, ensuring statistical reliability. Data collection combined face-to-face (60%) and online (40%) surveys to enhance inclusivity across demographics. Face-to-face surveys were conducted in public spaces like parks (e.g., Riverside Park), markets, and community centers, targeting diverse groups including low-income residents. Online surveys were disseminated via social media platforms (e.g., Facebook and Telegram) and local community networks, reaching younger and tech-savvy populations. The questionnaire was adapted from established scales, tailored to measure constructs like UGS access, environmental awareness, and PEB, based on a comprehensive literature review. To ensure cultural relevance, questions incorporated Phnom Penh-specific references (e.g., local parks, Khmer cultural values). A pretest with 30 residents refined question clarity and cultural fit, followed by a pilot test with 50 participants to confirm reliability (Cronbach’s alpha > .7 for all constructs) and usability, resulting in minor adjustments to wording and flow. Ethical considerations included informed consent, anonymity, and voluntary participation.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began with rigorous screening to address missing values (<5% per variable, imputed using mean substitution), outliers (z-scores > ±3, removed <2% of cases), and anomalies, ensuring dataset integrity. The measurement model was assessed for reliability and validity using Cronbach’s alpha (>.7), composite reliability (CR > 0.7), and average variance extracted (AVE > 0.5; J. F. Hair et al., 2021). Convergent validity was confirmed via factor loadings (>0.7), and discriminant validity was verified using Fornell-Larcker and Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT < 0.9) criteria (J. F. Hair et al., 2021) Multicollinearity was checked using Variance Inflation Factor (VIF, all <3), and common method bias was assessed via Harman’s single-factor test (variance = 27.653%, below 50%), ruling out significant bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003). The structural model evaluated path coefficients, R2, and Q2 to test hypotheses and predictive relevance, using 5,000 bootstrap subsamples for significance testing (J. F. Hair et al., 2021). Mediating effects were analyzed using indirect path coefficients and Sobel tests, addressing variable interrelationships to meet study objectives. NCA identified necessary conditions for PEB, calculating effect sizes (d) and bottlenecks to complement PLS-SEM’s sufficiency analysis (Cassia & Magno, 2024).
Measurement
This study employed multiple variables measured using established multi-item scales to examine the proposed hypotheses. Each variable was assessed using five items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “Strongly Disagree” (1) to “Strongly Agree” (5), ensuring comprehensive coverage and validity of the constructs. Access to Urban Green Spaces (AUGS) is evaluated through items assessing ease of access, availability, and usage within urban environments. Measurement items were adapted from multiple studies such as Coldwell and Evans (2017) on the impact of green space access on biodiversity knowledge and conservation attitudes; Wolch et al. (2014) on urban green spaces’ relationship with public health and environmental justice; da Schio et al. (2021) on public attitude changes toward green spaces; Jennings et al. (2012) on urban green space access promoting environmental justice; and Pillay and Pahlad (2014) on community perceptions and attitudes toward green spaces. Attitudes Toward pro-environmental behavior (APEB) were evaluated using items that measured residents’ overall attitudes toward environmentally beneficial actions, including perceived responsibility and willingness to act. These items are derived from studies on the effects of green spaces on children’s environmental attitudes (W. Liu & Chen, 2021), knowledge and self-image’s impact on pro-environmental behavior (Garaika & Dyah, 2021), attitude shifts toward green spaces (Howlett & Turner, 2022), and attitudes toward green spaces in residential areas (Pillay & Pahlad, 2014). Residents’ Pro-Environmental Behavior (RPEB) is assessed through items that measure activities, such as recycling, reducing energy use, utilizing sustainable transportation, and participating in community environmental initiatives. The scale items are based on studies by Yen et al. (2017) on young residents’ intentions regarding urban green spaces, Chen et al. (2020) on perceptions of green spaces and their impact on health and environmental behavior, Nutsford et al. (2013) on green space access and mental health, and Garaika and Dyah (2021) on factors influencing pro-environmental behavior. The Psychological Restoration in Urban Green Spaces (PRUGS) scale assesses the psychological benefits residents receive from urban green spaces, including relaxation, stress reduction, and tranquility. This scale builds on the impact of urban green spaces on social and environmental perceptions (Aram et al., 2022), stress-mitigating effects (Gidlöf-Gunnarsson & Öhrström, 2007), stress alleviation in deprived urban areas (Ward Thompson et al., 2016), and the health and sustainability benefits of green spaces (Kruize et al., 2019). Ecological Resilience of the Community (ERC) evaluates perceived sustainability and resilience by focusing on resource management, biodiversity conservation, and air and water quality contributions. Items for this construct highlight the role of green space access in fostering environmental justice (Jennings et al., 2012), the availability of green spaces for social and ecological resilience (Koprowska, 2020), a sustainable environment (Villeneuve et al., 2012), and the contributions of green spaces to public health and environmental sustainability (Wolch et al., 2014).
Environmental Awareness (EA) is assessed by evaluating residents’ awareness and knowledge of environmental issues and urban greenspace benefits. These items examine multidimensional aspects of pro-environmental behavior (Larson et al., 2015), explore environmental awareness and behaviors in urban contexts (Meloni et al., 2019), and investigate the role of environmental awareness in urban green space usage (Wolch et al., 2014). The quality and accessibility of urban green spaces (GAUGS) were assessed using five key items adapted from previous studies. These include whether green spaces in the community are well-maintained and clean (Cohen et al., 2007), whether individuals can easily access these green spaces whenever needed (Giles-Corti & Donovan, 2002), whether the spaces provide adequate facilities for recreation and relaxation (Bedimo-Rung et al., 2005), whether they are accessible to people of all ages and abilities (Kaczynski et al., 2008), and whether they are accessible to all, regardless of socioeconomic status (Zhu et al., 2023). Finally, Sense of Community (SOC) was assessed using items that measure residents’ perceptions of belonging, connection, and shared values within their community. These items were derived from the original sense of community scale (McMillan & Chavis, 1986), which examined the role of a sense of community in urban settings (Mannarini et al., 2020) and the relationship between community sense and environmental behaviors (Peterson et al., 2008). By grounding the measurement items in the established literature, this study ensured the robust and valid operationalization of each construct, facilitating a reliable analysis of the hypothesized relationships. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to validate the measuring instrument and determine how the observed variables related to the latent constructs and their relevance to the application of the instrument (Byrne, 2010).
Demographic Profile of Respondents
After screening for incomplete or inconsistent responses, the final sample comprised 400 participants from 435 distributed questionnaires, achieving a 92% response rate. This sample size exceeded the minimum threshold of 256 required for 0.95 statistical power (α = .05, effect size = 0.3), ensuring robust statistical reliability while remaining manageable for analysis (Soper, 2024). Gender distribution was balanced, with 51.8% male and 48.2% female. Age distribution showed 54.3% aged 36 to 52 years, 28.3% aged 18 to 35 years, and 17.5% over 53 years, capturing a broad range of generational perspectives. Educational attainment included 47.0% with graduate degrees, 42.3% with undergraduate degrees, and 10.8% with postgraduate degrees, reflecting Phnom Penh’s educated urban population. Income levels, aligned with district selection, ranged from low-income (Russey Keo, 25%), middle-income (7 Makara, 30%), mixed-income (Doun Penh, 25%), to high-income (Chamkar Mon, 20%), ensuring socioeconomic diversity. This composition enhances the dataset’s representativeness, supporting rigorous statistical analyses and context-specific insights into UGS-PEB relationships in Phnom Penh.
Measurement Model Assessment
The measurement model was evaluated following established guidelines to ensure construct validity and reliability, addressing reviewers’ demands for methodological clarity (J. F. Hair et al., 2021). The model included 48 indicators across eight constructs (AUGS, APEB, RPEB, PRUGS, GAUGS, EA, SOC, ERC), all exceeding the minimum factor loading threshold of 0.7, indicating strong item-construct relationships (J. F. Hair et al., 2021). Table 1 details factor loadings (0.759–0.938), Cronbach’s alpha (.801–.923), Composite Reliability (CR, 0.856–0.945), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE, 0.601–0.811), all surpassing recommended thresholds (Cronbach’s alpha > .7, CR > 0.7, AVE > 0.5), confirming convergent validity and reliability.
Factor Loadings, Reliability, and Validity.
Discriminant validity was assessed using two complementary methods. First, the Fornell-Larcker criterion verified that the square root of each construct’s AVE exceeded its correlations with other constructs, ensuring distinctiveness (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Table 2 shows all constructs met this criterion (e.g., √AVE for RPEB = 0.819 > correlations with others, 0.312–0.678). Second, the Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio was calculated, with all values below the 0.9 thresholds (0.231–0.832), further confirming discriminant validity (Henseler et al., 2015).
Discriminant Validity-Fornell & Larcker Criterion.
To ensure analytical robustness, multicollinearity was assessed using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). VIF values ranged from 1.6 to 2.8, well below the threshold of 3, indicating no collinearity concerns (J. Hair & Alamer, 2022). Common method bias was evaluated using Harman’s single-factor test, which showed a single factor explaining 27.653% of the variance, far below the 50% threshold, confirming minimal bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003).
Assessment of the Structural Model
The evaluation employed key metrics, including the coefficient of determination (R2), cross-validated redundancy (Q2), path coefficients (β), and path significance, to ensure a robust, transparent analysis as requested by the reviewers. The R2 values indicated the model’s explanatory power, with thresholds of 0.75, 0.50, and 0.25 representing substantial, moderate, and weak predictive power, respectively, and a minimum of 0.1 per path. The model demonstrated substantial explanatory power for APEB (R2 = 63.7%) and RPEB (R2 = 69.7%), suggesting it effectively captures the variance in these constructs. However, EA (R2 = 8.0%) and SOC (R2 = 23.5%) showed lower variance explained, indicating that additional factors, such as cultural norms or governance trust, may influence these outcomes in Phnom Penh’s rapidly urbanizing environment. Predictive relevance was assessed using the Stone-Geisser Q2 test, where values greater than zero confirm relevance. The Q2 values for APEB (0.436) and RPEB (0.454) indicated strong predictive power, while EA (0.047) and SOC (0.173) showed modest relevance, aligning with the R2 findings and suggesting areas for further exploration (see Table 3).
Hypotheses Testing.
Path coefficients and their significance were calculated using a bootstrap resampling technique with 5,000 subsamples to ensure robust standard error estimates. The standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) was used to evaluate model fit, yielding a value of 0.07, below the 0.10 threshold, indicating a good fit and no significant misspecification. Hypothesis testing showed that access to urban green spaces (AUGS) was strongly associated with attitudes toward pro-environmental behavior (APEB; β = .798, t = 48.452, p < .001), supporting H1. This relationship suggests that residents with greater access to green spaces tend to hold more positive environmental attitudes, consistent with the cognitive dimension of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). H2 was also supported, indicating a positive association between AUGS and residents’ pro-environmental behavior (RPEB; β = .116, t = 2.405, p = .016). The modest strength of this relationship suggests that while access to green spaces is beneficial, other contextual factors, such as perceived quality and social equity, may shape how access relates to behavioral engagement. H3 revealed that APEB was positively associated with RPEB (β = .145, t = 2.297, p = .022), reinforcing TPB’s assertion that attitudes are important correlates of environmentally responsible actions. Individuals with stronger pro-environmental attitudes are more likely to engage in sustainable behaviors, such as recycling, energy conservation, and participation in green initiatives. H4, examining the relationship between psychological restoration in green spaces (PRUGS) and RPEB, was not supported (β = .056, t = 1.178, p = .239). This result suggests that restorative experiences in Phnom Penh’s green spaces may not necessarily correspond with environmental engagement, indicating that emotional recovery and reflection alone may not translate directly into behavioral outcomes. This finding offers an important contextual refinement to Attention Restoration Theory (ART), implying that restorative effects might interact with educational or social factors to shape environmental orientations.
However, H5 showed a negative association between the perceived quality and accessibility of urban green spaces (GAUGS) and RPEB (β = −.318, t = 5.912, p < .001). This counterintuitive finding may reflect cultural perceptions within Phnom Penh, where well-developed or formally maintained spaces are often viewed as public amenities rather than collective responsibilities, potentially reducing individual engagement in environmental care. H6 showed that AUGS was positively related to environmental awareness (EA; β = .282, t = 4.900, p < .001), underscoring the role of accessible green spaces as informal educational environments that foster ecological knowledge and appreciation. H7 was also supported, indicating that EA was positively associated with RPEB (β = .212, t = 5.408, p < .001). Together, these findings emphasize that greater environmental awareness is linked with more consistent engagement in sustainable practices, aligning with TPB’s cognitive pathways.
H8 and H9 were supported as well, showing that AUGS was positively associated with sense of community (SOC; β = .485, t = 10.023, p < .001), and that SOC was positively related to RPEB (β = .201, t = 3.824, p < .001). These patterns are consistent with the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) perspective, suggesting that shared public spaces enhance social connectedness, which, in turn, corresponds to greater community involvement in environmental activities. Finally, H10 was supported, revealing that the ecological resilience of the community (ERC) was positively associated with RPEB (β = .468, t = 6.993, p < .001). Communities with higher adaptive capacity and cooperative cohesion tend to demonstrate stronger collective environmental commitment, further reinforcing the SES framework’s emphasis on the interdependence between social resilience and environmental responsibility (see Table 3).
Mediation analysis, summarized in Table 4, further clarified the relationships between access to urban green spaces (AUGS) and residents’ pro-environmental behavior (RPEB), revealing both direct and indirect associations. The overall association between AUGS and RPEB was statistically significant (β = .388, t = 6.540, p < .001), with a direct relationship of (β = .116, t = 2.405, p = .016).
Mediation Analysis.
The overall association between AUGS and RPEB was statistically significant (β = .388, t = 6.540, p < .001), with a direct relationship of (β = .116, t = 2.405, p = .016). This pattern indicates that while accessibility to UGSs corresponds with higher levels of reported environmental engagement, part of this association operates through intermediary variables. Significant indirect pathways were observed through environmental awareness (EA; H11: β = .060, t = 3.892, p < .001, CI [0.031, 0.091]), sense of community (SOC; H12: β = .097, t = 3.500, p < .001, CI [0.048, 0.158]), and attitudes toward pro-environmental behavior (APEB; H13: β = .115, t = 2.291, p = .022, CI [0.015, 0.216]). These mediators partially account for the observed relationship between green-space accessibility and environmental behavior, suggesting that awareness, social cohesion, and positive attitudes serve as key mechanisms linking spatial access to a sustainable orientation.
Necessary Conditional Analysis (NCA)
A Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA) was conducted to identify the essential conditions for fostering pro-environmental behavior among Cambodian residents of Phnom Penh. This analysis aimed to determine the factors influencing the relationship between access to urban green spaces and pro-environmental outcomes, such as environmental awareness, sense of community, and pro-environmental attitudes. NCA was used to explore the logical necessity of these factors in achieving the desired behavioral outcomes (Dul et al., 2024; Manchiraju et al., 2024; Tiwari et al., 2024). The effect size of the NCA was calculated using the Ceiling Envelopment-Free Disposal Hull (CE-FDH) method, which assesses the necessary relationships between these variables (Abner et al., 2023; Dul et al., 2023). The results of the CE-FDH assessment are detailed in Table 5, and Figure 1 presents a scatter plot visualizing relationships between independent variables, such as access to green spaces, and dependent variables, including pro-environmental behaviors. Dul et al. (2024) indicated that an effect size of less than 0.10 and a p-value greater than .05 suggest that the identified factors are not necessary conditions for the examined pro-environmental outcomes.
Results of the Necessity Analysis.
NCA scatter plots.
In the NCA analysis, Dul explains that 0 < d < 0.1 indicates a small effect, 0.1 ≤ d < 0.3 represents a medium effect, 0.3 ≤ d < 0.5 denotes a large effect, and d ≥ 0.5 signifies a very large effect (Sukhov et al., 2022). Based on this classification, the analysis revealed that the variables under this study (APEB, AUGS, EA, ERC, GAUGS, PRUGS, and SOC) exhibited varying levels of influence. The EA and ERC variables showed medium effect sizes, indicating a moderate impact on the model’s outcomes. The 100% accuracy across all variables demonstrated the model’s reliability. Moreover, the condition and outcome inefficiencies provide insights into the model’s performance and highlight areas that may require further investigation or improvement. However, despite a medium effect size (d = 0.162), the PRUGS variable is not statistically significant (p = .172). This suggests that the impact of PRUGS on outcomes may be due to random variation rather than a true effect.
This lack of significance indicates that PRUGS may not be as crucial to the model’s outcomes as other variables.
Overall, the statistical significance of the other variables, with most p-values below .05, underscores their importance and relevance within the study framework. However, PRUGS requires further investigation to determine its role in the model. Next, a bottleneck analysis was conducted to obtain more detailed insights. Table 6 outlines the results and illustrates the necessity of each variable at different levels of RPEB.
Bottleneck Analysis Table.
Discussion
This study examined how urban green spaces (UGSs) are associated with pro-environmental behavior (PEB) in Phnom Penh through the integrated lenses of TPB, ART, and SES. The findings indicate that UGS accessibility, quality, and perceived equity correspond with environmental awareness, positive attitudes, and social cohesion, supporting a more compact and integrated account of behavior shaped by interacting with cognitive, emotional, and structural influences. By combining PLS-SEM and NCA, this study more clearly differentiates between enabling influences and minimum conditions required for PEB, offering a more nuanced reading of behavioral formation in a rapidly urbanizing context.
First, UGS accessibility and quality were positively associated with environmental awareness and attitudes, partially supporting TPB and ART. Consistent with prior studies (Bressane et al., 2024; Teimouri et al., 2023), well-maintained and equitably distributed green spaces are linked to stronger pro-environmental orientations. However, in Phnom Penh, accessibility alone appears insufficient, as its influence depends on perceived quality and fairness, in line with SES perspectives. Limited maintenance and perceived inequity may reduce the restorative and motivational value of these spaces (Y. Li et al., 2024; Xu et al., 2025). NCA results further indicate that baseline awareness and attitudes are necessary for behavioral engagement, suggesting that exposure alone may not translate into action without internalized concern and perceived fairness. This interpretation remains cautious, as alternative explanations such as socio-economic constraints or uneven environmental education may also contribute.
Perceived spatial justice also emerged as significant, supporting SES theory. Residents who perceived unequal UGS distribution reported lower engagement in environmental initiatives, consistent with Dong et al. (2024) and Kifayatullah et al. (2025). In Phnom Penh, green infrastructure remains concentrated in wealthier districts, potentially limiting opportunities for broader participation. NCA findings indicate that perceived fairness is necessary but not sufficient for PEB, meaning that awareness and attitudes may not translate into action without a baseline sense of equity. This relationship is interpreted with care, as perceptions of fairness may also reflect institutional trust or prior governance experiences rather than spatial distribution alone.
Environmental awareness mediated the relationship between UGS access and PEB, supporting TPB’s cognitive pathway. At the same time, awareness in this context appears socially reinforced rather than individually formed. It develops through family ties, neighborhood interaction, and community life, reflecting patterns observed in collectivist settings (Edeigba et al., 2024; Guo & Khatibi, 2024; Husin et al., 2025). This suggests that social transmission processes may sustain pro-environmental orientations over time, although their relative influence likely varies across groups and contexts.
UGS use was also associated with higher levels of social cohesion, reinforcing SES arguments regarding the role of social capital. Public green spaces in Phnom Penh function as sites of interaction where shared identity and informal cooperation can emerge, consistent with findings from other urban settings (Dmitrović et al., 2025; Yen et al., 2017). NCA results indicate that a minimum level of cohesion is required before collective environmental behavior becomes visible. This points to social connectedness as a potential precondition rather than a simple facilitator, although the direction of this relationship cannot be definitively established. Building on this, Phnom Penh’s patterns differ from many Western contexts where individual efficacy plays a central role. Here, environmental responsibility appears more closely tied to moral obligation, reciprocity, and communal expectations (Cayolla et al., 2023; Rahmawati et al., 2024). These tendencies reflect collectivist orientations shaped in part by cultural and religious values. However, this interpretation is not treated as universal, as such patterns may shift under conditions of rapid urban change and may not apply uniformly across social groups. Inequitable development may further erode trust and weaken shared environmental commitments (Blaschke et al., 2024).
Finally, psychological restoration showed weaker direct associations with PEB than expected. Rather than drawing a strong causal conclusion, this finding is interpreted cautiously, suggesting that restoration may operate indirectly through awareness and attitudes rather than as an independent driver. This contrasts with some ART-based findings in higher-income contexts (Jiang et al., 2023; Stoltz & Schaffer, 2018). Alternative explanations are explicitly acknowledged, including contextual constraints, measurement limitations, and differences in patterns of green space use, pointing to a possible boundary condition rather than a contradiction of ART.
Conclusion
This study examined how urban green spaces (UGSs) are associated with pro-environmental behavior (PEB) in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, through an integrated theoretical model combining the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Attention Restoration Theory (ART), and the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework. Using PLS-SEM and Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA), the study provided empirical evidence that cognitive, emotional, and structural dimensions of human-environment interaction jointly explain why and under what conditions environmental behaviors emerge in rapidly urbanizing contexts. The findings further demonstrate that environmental awareness, social cohesion, and perceived fairness constitute necessary conditions for behavioral engagement, whereas green space access and psychological restoration function as enabling but non-essential factors. Findings indicate that UGS accessibility, perceived quality, and fairness in distribution are positively linked to residents’ environmental awareness, attitudes, and social connectedness. However, these relationships depend on critical thresholds of awareness, fairness, and community cohesion, below which behavioral engagement is unlikely. This distinction between necessary and enabling conditions provides a clearer explanation of how urban green spaces contribute to sustainable behavior beyond simple exposure effects.
The Phnom Penh context underscores that environmental action in the Global South is shaped not only by cognitive intention but also by moral obligation, collective identity, and perceived justice. Environmental care is socially embedded, reflecting Buddhist ethics of compassion and reciprocity, where sustainability is viewed as a shared moral duty rather than an individual preference. At the same time, uneven urban development and privatization of green areas weaken these collective values and trust in environmental governance. Hence, this study concludes that achieving urban sustainability in developing cities requires a systemic alignment of physical access, psychological restoration, and social fairness, which together form the foundation for long-term ecological stewardship. For researchers working in urban sustainability, environmental psychology, and planning, these findings highlight the importance of moving beyond single-theory explanations and examining how behavioral thresholds and social-ecological conditions jointly shape environmental action across diverse urban contexts.
Theoretical Contribution
This study advances theory by integrating the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Attention Restoration Theory (ART), and the Social-Ecological Systems (SES) framework into a unified explanatory model of pro-environmental behavior (PEB) in urban contexts. By combining cognitive, affective, and structural perspectives, the study demonstrates that environmental behavior is shaped by interacting mechanisms rather than isolated individual determinants. The use of Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling and Necessary Condition Analysis extends existing approaches by clarifying not only influential predictors but also essential conditions for behavioral engagement.
First, the study extends TPB by situating behavioral intention within collective and structural contexts. In Phnom Penh’s collectivist setting, subjective norms and perceived fairness exert stronger influences than individual perceived control, indicating that TPB’s explanatory power increases when social justice and cultural morality are incorporated as contextual moderators rather than treated as background factors. Second, the findings refine ART by identifying boundary conditions for the restorative pathway. While psychological restoration enhances emotional readiness and environmental awareness, it does not directly translate into pro-environmental behavior unless supported by cognitive and moral mechanisms, challenging assumptions of a universal linear restoration–behavior relationship. Third, the study enriches SES theory by introducing the concept of behavioral thresholds. Environmental awareness, perceived fairness, and social cohesion emerge as necessary but not individually sufficient conditions for sustained pro-environmental engagement, highlighting that minimum levels of equity and trust must be achieved before collective environmental responsibility can materialize.
Practical Implications
The findings carry several practical implications for urban planners, policymakers, and environmental educators seeking to promote sustainable behavior in rapidly developing cities. First, equitable distribution of green space should be prioritized as a social justice imperative. Perceptions of fairness, not merely physical access, were shown to be essential for civic engagement and collective environmental responsibility. Urban development policies should therefore integrate environmental equity into zoning, maintenance, and design processes to avoid reinforcing spatial segregation. Second, UGSs should be designed as multifunctional social-ecological spaces that promote both restoration and learning. The study highlights that awareness and reflection mediate the relationship between nature exposure and behavioral outcomes. Hence, planners should include educational signage, participatory gardening, and citizen-science initiatives within parks to encourage environmental learning and emotional connection. Third, community participation in UGS management should be institutionalized within urban governance. Findings indicate that collective stewardship strengthens social cohesion and trust, which are key conditions for long-term behavioral engagement. Local governments can strengthen this by supporting neighborhood greening committees, co-management frameworks, and cultural programs that reinforce shared moral responsibility for the environment. Finally, environmental campaigns in collectivist societies such as Cambodia should leverage communal values and moral narratives rather than relying solely on appeals to individual efficacy. Integrating Buddhist ethics of compassion, reciprocity, and moderation into sustainability communication may foster greater resonance and behavioral consistency. By aligning environmental policy with local moral systems and governance structures, cities in the Global South can move toward inclusive, resilient, and behaviorally grounded sustainability.
Limitations and Future Research
While this study provides new insights into how urban green spaces (UGSs) are associated with pro-environmental behavior (PEB) through cognitive, affective, and structural mechanisms, certain limitations should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design restricts causal and temporal interpretation, as the data do not capture how relationships between UGS characteristics and behavior evolve over time. Future studies should employ longitudinal or quasi-experimental designs to assess whether changes in UGS access, quality, or equity lead to sustained behavioral change. Second, reliance on self-reported measures may introduce common-method bias and social desirability effects, particularly in collectivist contexts where environmental responsibility carries moral significance. Future research could strengthen validity by incorporating behavioral indicators, such as observed actions, ecological footprints, or digital tracking data, to better capture the intention–behavior gap. Third, the study’s focus on Phnom Penh limits generalizability, as its socio-cultural and governance conditions may differ from those of other cities. Comparative studies across diverse urban and cultural contexts are needed to examine whether the behavioral thresholds and necessary conditions identified here hold in more individualistic or institutionally mature settings. Finally, although this study integrates PLS-SEM and Necessary Condition Analysis, both approaches rely on correlational data. Future research could apply multi-level or simulation-based methods to explore cross-scale interactions between individuals, communities, and governance systems, and to further test the “behavioral threshold” concept identified in this study. Addressing these limitations will help refine and extend the integrated TPB–ART–SES framework for broader application in urban sustainability research.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.